4. The fourth meaning of "development of faculty" is the training of general powers, such as the intellectual, moral, and physical powers, or the perceiving, imagining, and reasoning faculties, or the faculties of form, number, and language, etc.

Pestalozzi often used

the phrase in this sense, and, unfortunately, it was the way in which his fundamental statement was used by those practical followers who imitated his method. An example occurs in the report of the committee invited by the Board of Education of Oswego, New York, to inspect the school in 1862. Praising Pestalozzi, the committee said, "He sought to develop and strengthen the faculties of the child." We know that they intended this fourth meaning, for they said further, "He wished that the

art of observing should be acquired. He thought the thing perceived of less importance than the cultivation of the perceptive powers." As a consequence there was established the dreary grind of "sense training," of which more will be said in a later

chapter. Pestalozzi was also enthusiastic about the formal disciplinary value of arithmetic, which, for this reason, he considered the most important subject in the elementary curriculum.

The emphasis placed by Rousseau and Pestalozzi on the necessity of studying the appearing, maturing, and cultivating of the child's special instincts and capacities was very fruitful and beneficial. On the other hand, the emphasis placed by the Pestalozzians on the "harmonious development of all the faculties," conceived as general powers, was both beneficial and harmful: beneficial in calling attention to a great many possibilities of education that the old narrow curriculum had neglected; harmful in its suggestion of the mere formal disciplining of powers with material that was not of particular social value.

Home spirit of strict but loving discipline to dominate school. One of the most characteristic ideas in Pestalozzi's doctrine was that the spirit of the well-regulated home should dominate the school. Rousseau had idealized orderly domesticity in the "New Héloïse," and the responsibilities of parental education in the "Émile"; but the emphasis placed by Pestalozzi on a reform of the school through the discipline of a "thinking love" was one of the most valuable factors in the widespread influence of Pestalozzianism. Pestalozzi was influenced to maintain this idea not only by the teachings of Rousseau but also by the natural indications of his own heart. On one occasion a peasant, the father of one of Pestalozzi's pupils, visiting the school, said, "Why, this is not a school but a family.'

That is the greatest praise you can give me [answered Pestalozzi]. I have succeeded, thank God, in showing the world that there must be no gulf between the home and the school, and that the latter is only useful to education in so far as it develops the sentiments and the virtues which lend the charm and value to family life. (5: 210.)

Describing the principles on which he proceeded in treating poor children, he said:

Endeavor, first, to broaden your children's sympathies, and, by satisfying their daily needs, to bring love and kindness into such increasing contact with their impressions and activity, that these sentiments may be engrafted in their hearts. . .. (5: 157.)

As we have seen on page 275, this home spirit was to include strict discipline as well as loving-kindness. Considerable liberty was allowed, as in the home, but obedience was also required. Thus, as Pestalozzi said in "Leonard and Gertrude," his own

principles in regard to education were very strict, and were founded on an accurate knowledge of the world. He maintained that love was only useful in the education of man when in conjunction with fear; for they must learn to root out thorns and thistles, which they never do of their own accord, but only under compulsion, and in consequence of training. (1: 157.)

Elementary education to regenerate lower classes. — One phase of this Pestalozzian spirit of love was enthusiasm for the education of the poor. Pestalozzi said:

I . . . desire to facilitate in a general manner the acquisition of the elements of all arts and sciences [by] the lower classes, and to open to the faculties of the poor and weak the doors to art, which are the doors to humanity, and, if I can, burn down the barricade which, in spite of the empty boasts of our vaunted general enlightenment, puts the middle classes of Europe, with respect to individual power, far behind savages, in excluding ten men out of eleven from the right of every member of society to instruction, or at any [rate] from the possibility of making use of that instruction. (6: 142.)

Experimentation to discover the correct methods of teaching.— To discover the correct methods of teaching by experimentation was another characteristic idea in Pestalozzi's theory. In one of his last publications he said:

And so I end my dying strain with the words with which I began it: Prove all things and hold fast to that which is good. If anything better has ripened in you, add it in truth and love to what in truth and love I have endeavored to give you in these pages. I ask nothing better than to be put on one side, and replaced by others, in all matters that others understand better than I. (3: 292.)

This attitude of investigation and experimentation was carried to an extreme, however, in some of the work. Thus one of Pestalozzi's assistants said:

Even in our pedagogics, he would not permit us to make use of the results of the experience of other times or other countries; we were to read nothing, but discover everything for ourselves. Hence the whole strength of the Institute was always devoted to experiments. (3: 300.) Consequently, as one of his contemporary critics (von Raumer)

said:

He committed many mistakes usual with self-taught men. He wants the historical basis; things which others have discovered long before appear to him to be quite new when thought of by himself or any one of his teachers. He also torments himself to invent things which had been invented and brought to perfection long before, and might have been used by him if he had only known of them. (3: 301.)

Thus, while the craze for experimentation was beneficial as the basis of a revolution in elementary instruction, it led at the same time to many grotesque errors.

The discussion to this point has demonstrated Pestalozzi's intimate relation to Rousseau, and outlined the fundamental general ideas in Pestalozzi's work; namely, (1) education to be psychologized; (2) to consist of a development of the child's instincts and capacities; (3) to be dominated by the home spirit of strict but loving discipline; (4) to be universalized as a basis for regenerating the lower classes of society; (5) to be guided by experimental search for the best methods.

A more concrete phase of the movement will now be described by outlining Pestalozzi's life and work in relation to the social conditions in Switzerland.

Pestalozzi's career in relation to social development in Switzerland.. Educational advantages enjoyed in Zurich.Henry Pestalozzi was born in 1746 in Zurich. Although his widowed mother had little means, by practicing strict economy she was able to give Pestalozzi all the benefits of the unusual educational opportunities which existed in Zurich. These

opportunities were due to the presence in the University of Zurich of some of the most famous professors and writers in German history. The best known of these Zurich professors was Johann J. Bodemer (1698–1783), who taught history and politics for fifty years, devoting especial attention to the history and institutions of Switzerland and inspiring enthusiasm for justice, liberty, and the simple life. The study of modern literatures, especially the English, was also emphasized. Thus Zurich became one of the chief centers for the revival of German literature, such leaders as Klopstock, Wieland, and Kleist associating themselves there with Bodemer. Kleist said that whereas in Berlin there were only three or four men of taste or genius, in little Zurich there were twenty or thirty.

Pestalozzi decided to become a pastor like his grandfather, with whom he spent his summers in the country. He entered the University in 1760 and immediately took high rank as a scholar, the university printing a translation which he had made of a speech by Demosthenes. After studying theology for a time he proved unsuccessful as a preacher and undertook the study of law. Speaking of the influence exerted by his professors, Pestalozzi said:

The spirit of the public teaching in my native town, though eminently scientific, was calculated to make us lose sight of the realities of life, and lead us into the land of dreams. . . We had decided to live for nothing but independence, well-doing, sacrifice, and love of country, but we were without the practical knowledge necessary for reaching these ends. (5: 10.)

Strivings for Swiss social reform influenced by Rousseau.— Pestalozzi was moved also by the unfortunate condition of the peasants, which he learned to know on visits to his grandfather and uncle. The peasants complained of the burgesses of Zurich, who would not admit them to citizenship. One day when Pestalozzi was boasting of the liberty of the Swiss peasants, his uncle said, "Don't talk so much about