the instruction of the poorer children in the town. Here Pestalozzi taught without pay, so anxious was he to have a chance to experiment. He had half of the seventy-three children in the school under his direction, but as his instruction was largely oral and he neglected to teach the catechism, he aroused the suspicions of the parents and lost his position. Then he was allowed to teach in the A B C dame school maintained for the burgesses' children. The School Commission of Burgdorf reported in high praise of the results of his oral method, in which he used reading and arithmetic charts. His success secured him a place to teach in a class of older children (six to fifteen years) with whom he did not succeed so well. Meanwhile Pestalozzi had kept in touch with the government, and in July, 1800, the Executive Council granted him the gratuitous use of part of the old Burgdorf castle and its garden for school purposes. Here he was joined by his first helper, Kruesi, who had come to Burgdorf in charge of some thirty destitute children from the eastern part of Switzerland, which had been devastated by the war of the French against the Austrians and Prussians. The people of Burgdorf, like those of other towns removed from the scene of war, agreed to provide homes for some of these children, and Kruesi had brought them over the mountains. The school in the castle prospered, and Pestalozzi added assistant teachers - Tobler for geography and history, Buss for drawing and singing, Neef, an old Napoleonic soldier, for gymnastics, Kruesi teaching language and arithmetic.

Pestalozzi announced that he would take boarding pupils and would maintain an institute for training teachers, which he did successfully for about three and a half years. This success led to donations of money and firewood from the government and some subscriptions from private sources. Various commissions investigated the work of the school and reported favorably, and scores of visitors flocked to Burgdorf from many countries. In 1802 there were 102 persons in

''

the institute, including 72 pupils, 10 masters, and a number of foreigners who were studying the method. Pestalozzi published here "How Gertrude teaches her Children," his most important pedagogical treatise; a "Guide for teaching Spelling and Reading," accompanied by large movable letters; a "Book for Mothers," describing methods of object teaching. Yverdon (1805-1825); famous but unhappy experiment. In 1803, under the influence of Napoleon, the unitary centralized government was abolished in Switzerland and a somewhat closer federation of cantons than had existed before 1798 reëstablished. The local government of the canton in which Burgdorf was located needed the castle, and Pestalozzi had to move. For a few months he formed a partnership with Fellenberg, who was as efficient in practical affairs as Pestalozzi was inefficient. Pestalozzi and his school, however, could not endure the business-like régime which Fellenberg established and they soon separated, Pestalozzi accepting the invitation extended by the town of Yverdon to locate his school there, in the French-speaking part of Switzerland.

In Yverdon, Pestalozzi continued his institute for twenty years (1805–1825), where it enjoyed even greater fame than it did in Burgdorf. Visitors, serious and curious, came by hundreds, many making a point of seeing Pestalozzi, just as they would of seeing a lake or a glacier. At the same time the institute was involved in considerable controversy with critics, who were stimulated by the unfavorable report of a committee appointed by the Swiss Diet in 1809 to investigate the actual efficiency of the teaching rather than the validity of Pestalozzi's theories.

He had many assistant teachers, some of whom stayed only a few years and then left to establish Pestalozzian institutes in all parts of Europe. Several of these assistants were permanent, however, and they specialized in experimenting with Pestalozzi's principles in application to various subjects. Jealousies developed among them as a result of their ambitions

to be leaders in the institute, and consequently its most characteristic virtue, the Pestalozzian spirit of love and charity, disappeared, and the efficiency greatly declined. These dissensions led to the closing of the institute in 1825. Pestalozzi's last two years were spent on his farm at Neuhof, where he died in 1827.

Spread of Pestalozzianism. Appreciation of "Leonard and Gertrude."-The popularity of Pestalozzi's institutes and the attention which they attracted have been referred to in the preceding section. But his practical experiments were not the first part of his works to attract general notice. The publication of "Leonard and Gertrude "in 1781 in itself brought international fame. The appreciation of this book by his own country is shown by the action of the Agricultural Society of Bern, which sent him a letter of congratulation with a sum of money and a gold medal. An example of the appreciation of foreigners is the letter from Count von Zinzendorf, Chancellor to the Austrian emperor. The count wrote:

Your projects and your attempts for the education of the poor, for the reclaiming of waifs and strays, and especially all that you claim for the instruction of the people, in a word, everything which ought to be the object of legal measures, will be of great importance to me, and I shall receive with great pleasure anything you write to me on the subject.

Queen Louisa of Prussia, years after the publication of Pestalozzi's novel, wrote in her diary:

I am reading "Leonard and Gertrude," and enjoy transporting myself to the Swiss village. If I were my own mistress, I should at once go to Switzerland and see Pestalozzi. Would that I could take his hand, and that he might read my gratitude in my eyes! . . . With what kindness and ardor he works for the good of his fellow man! Yes, in the name of humanity I thank him with my whole heart. (5: 257.)

In 1814, when the Russian and Austrian troops, in the course of war with Napoleon, contemplated appropriating buildings in Yverdon for a hospital, Pestalozzi's personal appeal to the Russian and Austrian emperors was sufficient to have the

order countermanded. The two emperors received him respectfully and cordially, the Czar decorating him with a cross of honor, and the Austrian emperor sending him a present. The famous educational leaders who visited and investigated Pestalozzi's institutes will be named in the discussion of the spread of his doctrines in particular countries through their influence. Besides these professional visitors there were many with more general interests, among whom are said to have been the kings of Spain, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, Württemberg, and Saxony, Prince Esterházy of Hungary, Napoleon's famous general, Ney, and Kosciusko, the Polish patriot.

The Movement in Switzerland. — We have already noticed that the Swiss national government, the local authorities at Yverdon, and private citizens contributed to the support of Pestalozzi's institutes, and that many Swiss teachers were trained in them. Pestalozzi's first and most sympathetic helper, Kruesi, was principal of the normal school at Gais from 1833 to 1844 and trained teachers in the Pestalozzian methods. Other associates performed similar services in other parts of Switzerland, but the most important and successful attempt to apply Pestalozzi's principles on a large scale was by Emanuel Fellenberg in schools at Hofwyl, which will be described in detail in the next chapter.

In some parts of Switzerland, however, there was as much suspicion and criticism of Pestalozzi's work as there was enthusiasm for it in others. This was due to the intense feelings arising from differences in political and religious beliefs. Consequently the general adoption of Pestalozzianism in Switzerland was not as rapid as in Prussia.

Pestalozzian schools a large factor in Prussian social reform. - In Prussia Pestalozzi's influence was so strong that the whole system of elementary schools was called by a Prussian educational leader, in 1846, the "Prussian-Pestalozzian system." This name is a very good one because it suggests

that Pestalozzi's influence was not entirely responsible for the Prussian system, but it was a large factor in determining its work. In Chapter X we noted that Prussia, as a benevolent monarchy, was interested in the establishment of people's schools and by 1800 had made large progress in developing the first important European national school system. Consequently Pestalozzi's experiments early attracted attention in Prussia, and private individuals and government officials hastened to study them.

Pestalozzi directly inspired Herbart and Froebel. — Among the first of the private German citizens was Herbart, one of the two most influential of Pestalozzi's disciples. He visited Burgdorf in 1799, and published an account of "Pestalozzi's Idea of an ABC of Sense Perception" (1802). Another German citizen, Gruner, visited the Burgdorf Institute and then opened a Pestalozzian school in Frankfort on the Main. Here Froebel, the second of the two greatest German disciples of Pestalozzi, began his work as a teacher. So inspired was he, that he went to Yverdon in 1808 and spent two years there studying the methods. "It soon became evident to me," he said, "that 'Pestalozzi' was to be the watchword of my life."

Prussian king interested in Burgdorf, 1803.- Many other Germans, whose names do not concern us, wrote discussions of Pestalozzi's work for German periodicals. As a consequence of this general interest the Prussian king, in 1803, appointed an envoy who spent five months at Burgdorf and rendered such a favorable report to the king that the latter authorized Pestalozzi's methods to be used in the training schools for teachers, and in 1804 authorized their use in primary schools.

General Prussian social reform following the defeat at Jena.- In October, 1806, Prussia, whose military efficiency had greatly declined since the days of Frederick the Great, was defeated by Napoleon in the battle of Jena. The country was completely demoralized, and by the treaty of peace