GRAVES, F. P. Great Educators of Three Centuries. Chaps. IX and XII. GRÉARD, O. Éducation et Instruction. GREGORY, A. Robert Raikes, Journalist and Philanthropist. GREGORY, R. Elementary Education. HARRIS, J. Robert Raikes; the Man and his Work. HOLMAN, H. English National Education. Chap. II. JONES, L. Life of Robert Owen. KEMP, W. W. The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. LEITCH, J. Practical Educationalists and their Systems. Pp. 121– 165. MEIKLEJOHN, J. M. D. An Old Educational Reformer, Dr. Andrew Bell. MONTMORENCY, J. E. G. State Intervention in English Education. Chaps. III and V-VII. MONTMORENCY, J. E. G. The Progress of National Education in England. OLIVER, N. K. Advantages and Defects of the Monitorial System of Instruction. PALMER, A. E. The New York Public School. Chaps. II-XVI. PASCOE, C. F. Two Hundred Years of the S. P. G. RANDALL, S. S. History of the Common School System of the State of New York. Pp. 28-32. ROBERTS, R. D. Education in the Nineteenth Century. Chap. II. Great Britain, Department of Education, Special Reports. Vols. II and VIII. SADLER, M. E. SALMON, D. Joseph Lancaster. SALMON, D. The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century. SECRETAN, C. F. Memoirs of the Life and Times of Robert Raikes. Pp. 254-294. TRUMBULL, H. C. Yale Lectures on the Sunday School. The History of the Sunday School Union and The First Fifty Years of the Sunday School. WEBER, S. E. The Charity School Movement in Pennsylvania. WICKERSHAM, J. P. A History of Education in Pennsylvania. Chaps. IV, VII-VIII, and XIV. WIGHTMAN, J. M. Annals of the Boston Primary School Committee. CHAPTER IV RISE OF THE COMMON SCHOOL IN AMERICA Gradual Development of Public Education in the United States. Philanthropy in education and the institution of charity schools constituted only a half-way house in the progress of modern educational organization. As a reform of the moral, religious, and economic conditions of the masses in the eighteenth century, philanthropic training served a great purpose, but its real mission would now seem to have been to pave the way to the common schools. Through the charity schools the conception of the importance and value of education to society was greatly enlarged, and the need of a generous financial support was gradually recognized. These institutions were a makeshift to relieve the burdens of the poor and were ofttimes sectarian and narrow in their attitude, but they became the foundation for a completely nonsectarian and universal training for citizenship at public expense. Out of them were largely evolved the conception of a state or national system of education trol and sup- for all and the idea of the common school. port, which Universal education un der publiccon education, grew out of Such a development of universal education under philanthropic state control and support has reached its most consistent has naturally form in the United States. And this is not surprising. America has long stood, in theory at least, for equality sistent form of opportunity, and this conception of society is apparent in its views of education. The distinguishing character reached its most con in the United States. istic of the American schools has throughout been the attempt of a free people to educate themselves, and, through their elected representatives, the people of the various states have now come, in harmony with the genius of American civilization, to initiate, regulate, and control their own systems of education. The universal, free, and secular schools of the United States are a natural accompaniment of its republican form of government. But, like the new democracy itself, this development of popular education was not reached at a bound. The American schools are the offspring of European institutions, and have their roots deep in the social soil of the lands from which the colonists came to America. At first they resembled the schools of the mother countries as closely as the frontier life in the new world would permit. In American education the seventeenth century was distinctly a period of transplantation of schools, with little or no conscious change, and it is only toward the middle of the next century, as new social and political conditions were evolving and the days of the Revolution were approaching, that there are evident a gradual modification of European ideals and the differentiation of American schools toward a type of their own. This period of transition from inherited ideals is not marked off until the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth, and the purely American conception of education cannot be fully discerned before the middle of the latter century. Conditions in Europe from Which American Education Developed.-We have hitherto had little occasion to speak of American education, except by way of anticipating certain great waves of influence and important the American colored by the religious interests of the Reformation period, during which the colonists left the old world. institutions that have come into America from Europe. But in the rest of our study of educational history the practices of education in the new world will become increasingly distinctive and influential, and, to get at their origins, we must now turn back in our narrative to the early part of the seventeenth century and briefly consider the social and educational situation in Europe, especially England and Holland. This may seem like a serious breach both in logic and chronology, but only in the light of the conditions out of which they sprang can the developed ideals and practices of universal public education in the United States be really understood. Education in The thirteen American colonies were started while the colonies was fierce agitations of the Reformation period were still at their height. The settlers, for the most part, were Protestants, and many of them had emigrated in order to establish institutions-political, ecclesiastical, educational-that would conform to their own ideals, and in all cases education in the new world was given a peculiar importance by the dominant religious interests and conflicts of the old. At this time in practically all the states of Europe, educational institutions were controlled and supported by the church and religious orders, with the assistance of private benevolence; but a few schools everywhere, and especially in Teutonic countries, were maintained by pre-Reformation craft gilds, and so had a close connection with municipalities. Thus the American schools at first naturally adopted the religious conception of education and ecclesiastical domination, but had some acquaintance with free schools and municipal management. In addition to these characteristics, the religious |