They were... children in knowledge and understanding; in the actual point of civilization which they had reached by themselves, scarcely, if indeed at all, above the level of the best tribes of North American

Indians. . . . In very many ways in ideas, in dress, in habits and ways of living, in methods of warfare and diplomacy the parallel is very close and interesting; and if we can imagine a civilized land taken possession of by bands of warriors not materially above the best of our Indians in actual attainment, though superior to them in spirit and in moral tone, the picture will not be far wrong. (2: 7.)

A thousand years to develop new civilization. It took approximately one thousand years for the German barbarians to begin to approach in culture and civilization the people living around the Mediterranean in the fifth century. In this thousand years they developed national characteristics as Germans, French, English, Scotch, etc. They changed from wandering tribes to settled agriculturalists. They built cities. Their crude oral legends developed into a written literature, including works considered classic at the present time.

Native vernacular schools the last to develop. - Needless to say, the problem of developing Christian education among the barbarians was quite different from what it had been among the civilized Romans. Elementary schools, based on a study of the native languages and literature, were the last to develop because their existence depended on the tardy development of the native civilization or culture. On the other hand, secondary and higher schools, giving instruction in a foreign language (Latin), were very early developed under the aggressive campaign of conversion and education conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. A few facts concerning this development will be reviewed.

Roman Catholic Church gradually became dominant.-We have seen how Christian tradition, dogma, and literature developed among the cultured peoples around the Mediterranean. Rome had been the political center of this region and became the controlling religious center for most of Western Europe. The head of the local Christian community at Rome,

namely, the bishop of Rome, for various reasons which are set forth at length in the general histories, gradually came to be considered by the Christians of Italy and Spain and Gaul as the leader of the Christians in the West. Thus the bishop of Rome became the Pope of the Western Church.

Latin became the official language of the church. — The Latin language was the universal language of the educated in the Western Roman Empire. It was also the language in which the standard (orthodox) translation of the Scriptures (the Vulgate of Jerome, fourth century) and many of the most important Christian books were written. Hence Latin naturally became the official language of the Catholic Church.

Catholic Church active in Christianizing the Germans. — Following the injunction of Jesus to his disciples to go forth and preach the gospel to the whole world, the Roman Catholic Church was untiring in its efforts to convert the northern barbarians. Some of the notable conversions are dated as follows. (1: 162.)

440 St. Patrick converted the Irish.

496 Clovis, king of the Franks, became a Christian.

587 Reccared, king of the Goths of Spain.

597 Ethelbert, king of Kent.

626 Edwin, king of Northumbria.

635 The English of Wessex.

681 The South Saxons.

878 Gunthrum, the Dane, by the Peace of Wedmore.
912 Rollo, duke of the Normans.

967 Boleslav II, king of the Bohemians.

972 The Hungarians.

Church active in establishing schools among barbarians; these not indigenous. In order to develop native priests among these barbarians it became necessary not only to establish schools for moral and religious discipline, but also to teach prospective priests the rudiments of reading and the Latin language. As we have seen, a knowledge of Latin was necessary for an introduction to the Scriptures and other religious

TOWER OF KNOWLEDGE (FROM THE MARGARITA PHILOSOPHICA," 1504), SHOWING STAGES IN MEDIEVAL EDUCATION

writings. These schools provided by the Christian Church were for a long time the only schools in existence among the barbarians, and other schools, when they did come into existence, were offshoots of the Church schools. Consequently practically all the learning to be found among the Germans consisted of the Christian literature and such a part of the old Greek and Roman culture as the churchmen cared to preserve and study. For this the Church deserves credit which is sometimes denied to it. Thus we find that the first important schools established among the barbarians of northern Europe possessed the following characteristics: (1) They were not a natural development in connection with native culture, but were founded under foreign influence. (2) They taught a foreign language, not the native tongue. (3) They were largely selective in purpose, that is, designed not to train the masses but to select and train those who were to be leaders in religious life. These three characteristics were dominant in European education down to the twelfth or thirteenth centuries.

As compared with the Latin schools, elementary vernacular schools were tardily developed. There could be no large demand for such schools until the vernacular languages and

Explanation of picture of Tower of Knowledge

"The youth (seen at the left) having mastered the Hornbook and the rudiments of learning, advances toward the temple of knowledge. Wisdom is about to place the key in the lock of the door of the temple. Across the door is written the word congruitas, signifying Grammar. On the first and the second floors of the temple he studies the Latin Grammars of Donatus and of Priscian, and at the first stage at the left on the third floor, he studies the Logic of Aristotle, followed by the Rhetoric and Poetry of Tully, thus completing the Trivium (Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic). The Arithmetic of Boethius also appears on the third floor. On the fourth floor of the temple he completes the studies of the Quadrivium, taking in order the Music of Pythagoras, Euclid's Geometry, and Ptolemy's Astronomy The student now advances to the study of Philosophy, studying successively Physics, Seneca's Morals, and the Theology (or Metaphysics) of Peter Lombard, the last being the goal toward which all has been directed." (1: 85.)

literature had reached a certain degree of development. This development was retarded by the dominance of the classical languages in the schools and in the intercourse of all educated classes. The best thinkers were educated, and taught and wrote, in Latin so exclusively that little motive, energy, or genius was left for the development of the native languages and literatures.

Latin schools very numerous; five types. - The following outline shows the kinds of schools teaching the Latin language, which grew up between 500 and 1500 A.D.:

1. Episcopal or Cathedral schools. These were called Episcopal schools because they were held at the church (cathedral) of a bishop, who was a subordinate officer under the Pope, in charge of the religious life of a given region. As we have seen, these schools were originally established for the purpose of training candidates for the ordinary clergy, but in the later Middle Ages they educated a great many lay youth. Schools were also maintained at other large churches that were not the residences of bishops, and these were called collegiate schools.

2. Monastic schools. These were maintained in the monasteries, primarily for novices who were preparing to become monks, although they often educated lay youth also.

3. Guild schools.-Guilds were medieval organizations like modern clubs, with a variety of objects, "from governing the community to giving soup to the poor." There was usually some religious aspect to their organization, and they employed one or more priests to officiate for them and pray for their souls. When this priest was not so engaged, he was often required to use his spare time in teaching Latin grammar to a stated number of children. Sometimes large schools were maintained by the guilds, the best known example being the Merchant Taylors' School of London.

It is sometimes erroneously assumed that there was some close connection between "guild schools" and the apprenticeship system of industrial education which prevailed in the