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Locke made psychology a phase of natural science. Another influence tending to popularize the method of firsthand experience, observation, and actual experiment in scientific study was the work of the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), a contemporary and friend of Newton and Boyle. We shall have occasion later to note his influence on religious toleration, democracy, and education. Locke is sometimes called the father of empirical psychology, meaning that he was the first to apply the methods of actual observation to the study of the mind itself; to study actual experience in order to understand it; to use the method of introspection, that is, the examination of one's own mind or consciousness, and the comparative method, that is, the observation of the behavior of savages and children and other conscious beings. Thus in place of the psychology based on Plato and Aristotle, Locke created the modern scientific psychology of actual experience, which has developed into the experimental psychology and child study of to-day. Moreover, in his study of experience Locke's main purpose was to determine how people acquire their ideas, opinions, and attitudes. In his conclusion he decided that all of an individual's knowledge is derived by reflection from experience, that the elements of his most complicated thinking are sensations which he experiences as a result of actual contact with physical forces or stimuli. Thus Locke's philosophy was "preëminently a philosophy of experience, both in its method and its results. It accepts nothing on authority, no foregone conclusions. . . . It digs, as it were, into the mind, detaches the ore, analyzes it and asks how the various constituents came there." (6: 150.)

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Thus Locke contributed very definitely to the development of natural science in its relation to education: first, by making psychology a phase of natural science; and second, by emphasizing sense experience, that is, direct contact with natural phenomena as the source of the individual's ideas.

In the preceding discussion of science the large part played by Englishmen has been evident. Newton, Harvey, Gilbert, Boyle, Bacon, and Locke are among the greatest names in the history of scientific investigation and discussion. But English science had little direct influence on English education. It was English science as transplanted to France that profoundly influenced theories of life and education and finally found a place in Swiss and German elementary education. English science popularized

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VOLTAIRE

in France by Voltaire.- The popularizing of the English scientific spirit and scientific results in France was largely the work of Voltaire (16941778), in whom the conflict between ecclesiastical dogma and the scientific spirit of inquiry was centralized in the eighteenth century. So strong was the hatred of Voltaire by the orthodox ecclesiastics, and so vigorous was their condemnation of him as an atheist, that this has become the one phase of his character which has been impressed upon the popular mind and is recorded in the ordinary histories. But he was not an atheist, although strongly opposed to the superstitious and dogmatic religious life of his period. He was not a Christian, but he admired the simple Christianity of the English Quakers. His religious belief was deism, and he used Newton's physics as an important tool in demonstrating the existence of God, in which he believed. For our present purpose it is most profitable to think of Voltaire as popularizing in France, and on the continent generally, English scientific thought and applying its spirit and results in criticism of French social life.

Before his visit to England in 1726 he had been trained as a lawyer; had lived in touch with the refined and depraved French society; had been imprisoned for supposed authorship of verses criticizing the government; had made a reputation as a dramatist; had moved from place to place to avoid official persecution; and was finally imprisoned in 1725 for a conflict with a member of the nobility, but was released and ordered to leave Paris. Following the custom common among Frenchmen at that time, he went to England and lived there for over two years. During this time he made a careful study of English thought and literature. The superior development and greater freedom of the English people in political, religious, and scientific life he described in "Letters concerning the English," published in English and French between 1730 and 1733. The criticisms of French life, implied or stated, resulted in the letters being immediately condemned and burned by the French authorities.

Voltaire considered Newton and Locke the greatest of geniuses. These letters contained an exposition of the theories of Locke and Newton, and a later work was entitled "The Elements of the Philosophy of Newton." Being the leading and most able writer of the period (Morley says "the most trenchant writer in the world"), his clear and simple presentation of English scientific thought soon made it the popular philosophy of France.

Voltaire expressed his high estimate of Newton and Locke many times. He wrote:

Not long ago a distinguished company were discussing the trite and frivolous question, who was the greatest man, Cæsar, Alexander, Tamerlane or Cromwell. Somebody answered that it was undoubtedly Isaac Newton. This person was right. . . . It is to him who masters our mind by the force of truth, not to those who enslave men by violence; it is to him who understands the universe, not to those that disfigure it, that we owe our reverence. (7: 72.)

Concerning Locke he wrote: "After all, we must admit that anybody who has read Locke, or rather who is his own Locke, must find the Platos mere fine talkers, and nothing more." (7: 168.)

Like Francis Bacon, Voltaire had no scientific talent and made no scientific discoveries, although he did considerable laboratory work. He differed from Bacon in placing a small value on his own scientific work, while appreciating at their true worth the scientific methods and achievements of his contemporaries.

French Encyclopedia spread the scientific spirit. — An important phase of the development of the scientific spirit in France was the famous Encyclopedia published under the editorship of Diderot (1713--1784), to which Voltaire, Rousseau, and most of the other great thinkers of the period contributed. Begun in 1745 as a translation of Chambers's English Cyclopedia, its scope was later enlarged by Diderot. The first volume, which was published in 1751, was suppressed as injurious to the king's authority and to religion. Alternate persecution and favor followed the succeeding volumes until the complete work, seventeen volumes of text and eleven of plates, was published in 1765.

This enterprise, the history of which is a microcosm of the whole battle between the two sides in France, enabled the various opponents of theological absolutism, the Voltaireans, the Rousseauites, atheists, and all other sorts and conditions of protesting men, to confront the church and its doctrine with a similar semblance of organic unity and completeness. The Encyclopedia was not simply negative and critical. It was an unexampled manual of information, and was the means of spreading over the country some knowledge of that active scientific culture, which was producing such abundant and astonishing discoveries. (7: 355-)

Leaving the discussion of the influence of scientific discovery in overthrowing the ecclesiastical dominance of life and thought, we will take up the second influential factor, namely, religious toleration.

Religious toleration opposed to ecclesiastical despotism.The growth of religious toleration among Christian sects was a sign that secular interests were gaining a place, that statesmen were beginning to appreciate the fact that religious wars were one of the surest ways of weakening and impoverishing a nation. From the time of the Reformation to the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) "the toleration of religious opinion was even as a conception almost unknown." Down to the beginning of the eighteenth century the idea of toleration had little place in the minds of the clergy or ordinary people, and they were seldom in sympathy with the liberty of worship occasionally granted by an enlightened monarch.

Religious toleration exceptional in France before Revolution. In France such a monarch was Henry IV, who in the famous Edict of Nantes (1598) assured liberty of worship to the Huguenots. The same condition of toleration continued under his successor, Louis XIII. This continuance was due to the power of Richelieu, chief minister to the king (1624– 1642). Richelieu was a cardinal in the Catholic Church, but he realized that the strength and prosperity of the French people were increased by religious toleration. Under the next king, Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715), however, the persecution of the Huguenots was reopened in 1666, and the Edict of Nantes revoked in 1685. The intolerant control by the Catholics continued in France practically to the French Revolution (1789).

Limited toleration in England after Revolution of 1688.— In England toleration was the rule of Elizabeth but not of most of her successors. Cromwell was broad-minded and generally favored toleration of every religion except the Catholic. This was not the general rule with Puritans, however, as was shown by their intolerant attitude in Massachusetts. When the English monarchy was restored under Charles II (r. 16601685), the Act of Uniformity of 1662 again required adherence to the Established Church, and dissenters (Presbyterians,

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