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In the sciences the children were to learn to measure time by the hour glass or sundial, the rising and setting of the sun and the moon, the cardinal points, plants, and animals; furthermore ecclesiastical and secular things, as, for instance, the Thuringian country and what is found in it, "as trenches, roads, offices, hospitals, something about authorities, judges, merchants, business," etc., and lastly a little instruction in geometry and physics. General compulsory education was decreed. The parents should send their children to school from the fifth to the thirteenth year of age; in cases of withholding children from school the parents were to be punished with fines, which fines should be employed to support poor pupils. The schools were to be kept open in winter and summer. The teachers were directed to keep a roster of the pupils and note their attendance. Clergymen were the supervisors and inspectors of the schools. But the Duke did not rest satisfied with ordering and decreeing. He took care that better teachers were available; he had schoolhouses built, and organized a regular system of school inspection, while Reyher prepared the necessary schoolbooks, "according to the new methods." The Duke furthermore gave from his own exchequer large sums for increasing the teachers' salaries and induced large landowners to do the same. (5: 43.)

Concerning the success of these reforms Paulsen says, "It is probably not wrong to infer that these regulations of the pious Duke were the first of all school Regulations that were carried into effect without any considerable deductions." (6: 137.) Although the system was not continued as effectively by his successor, it served as an early object lesson to the other German states.

This will conclude our discussion of Comenius and his influence. We shall now take up for consideration the educational theories of John Locke, as the best example, from the seventeenth century, of a thoroughly secularized view of education which included religion as one factor, but not as a dominant factor.

John Locke; preeminent as a thinker in four lines, including education. In the preceding chapter we noted Locke's preeminent achievement in three lines-as the founder of modern psychology based on the methods of natural science, as formulator of the principles of Anglo-Saxon democracy, and

as the exponent of the principles of English religious toleration. We noted further that Voltaire ranked Locke and Newton as the two greatest thinkers in Europe. A fourth way in which Locke achieved international fame was as a writer on education. As such he was the chief source of Rousseau's ideas, and he profoundly influenced German educational thought even before the appearance

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of Rousseau's "Émile" in 1762. In view of these facts it is worth while to give a brief account of his educational ideas even though they exerted little direct influence on elementary education.

JOHN LOCKE

Locke's career. Scholar, tutor, physician, statesman, philosopher.-John Locke (1632-1704) received his early education in one of the great English boarding schools, that of Westminster (1646-1652). He resided at Oxford University as student and tutor from 1652 to 1665. He was interested not only in philosophy, in which he became famous, but also in the study of medicine and physical science, actively coöperating with Boyle, the discoverer of Boyle's Law. In 1666 he was employed as physician, adviser, and tutor in the family of Lord Shaftesbury (then Lord Ashley). With this noted family he was associated for most of the period down to 1683. In this connection he occupied important political secretaryships, and was obliged to flee to Holland (1683) when his employer, the Lord President of the Council, was tried for treason.

During his six years of exile in Holland, Locke was in frequent communication with William and Mary, who, after

the English Revolution of 1688, became king and queen of England. Locke returned to England in their company, and within a short time King William offered to send him as ambassador to Prussia. But Locke had used his leisure in Holland to get his famous "Essay concerning the Human Understanding" ready for the press and preferred to continue his work as an author. The remainder of his life (fifteen years) was spent in pleasant circumstances, holding easy political positions and having the desired leisure for writing. During this time he was in intimate correspondence with his friend "Mr. Newton" (Sir Isaac). He died in 1704.

Qualified to be an expert authority on education. - Locke was thoroughly qualified by experience and study to write on education. As private tutor for a period of about ten years, he had ample opportunity to become acquainted with children and the possibilities of education. As a physician he was an authority on physical training. As a natural-science psychologist he was thoroughly informed concerning the facts of human nature, concerning habit formation, reasoning, etc. As an experienced public servant and traveler he was prepared to estimate the relative values of the various activities of life and their importance in education.

"Thoughts on Education," published 1693.- Locke's theories of education are contained for the most part in two of his works. The first, "Some Thoughts concerning Education," originated while he was in Holland, as a series of letters to a friend who desired advice concerning the education of his son. These letters were published in 1693. His other book, "The Conduct of the Understanding," is a brief essay concerning the development of proper methods of thinking.

It is uncertain how well acquainted Locke was with the writings of other educational reformers. Doubtless he derived some of his ideas from these, but one cannot read his Thoughts, with its wealth of detailed description of children's characteristics and of the methods of dealing with

them, without feeling that Locke's ideas were largely the product of a reasoned consideration of his own experiences.

The Thoughts considered from the standpoint of elementary education. Because of the wealth of practical detail contained in the Thoughts it is difficult to summarize its fundamental principles. Almost everything in the book is sane and worthy of consideration. The points selected for emphasis will vary considerably with the point of view of the commentator. Our interest is in those principles that have a bearing on general elementary education, and we will select a few that are especially characteristic of Locke, and a few others which, as expressed by him, influenced Rousseau, Basedow, and others on the Continent.

Learning of less importance than virtue, wisdom, and breeding. Four desirable results of education Locke stated to be virtue, wisdom, breeding, and learning. Concerning the last of these he said, "You will wonder perhaps that I put learning last, especially if I tell you I think it the least part." The learning which Locke had in mind was largely the study of Greek and Latin, but he applied the same general principle to other subjects of study. In this we notice a strong contrast with Comenius, who emphasized an encyclopedic knowledge of things as of first importance.

By good breeding Locke meant civil and "well-fashioned" behavior. This he maintained could be acquired by applying one rule, not to think meanly of ourselves, and not to think meanly of others. "Wisdom," he said, "I take in the popular Acceptation, for a man's managing his Business ably and with foresight in this World." True wisdom he considered the opposite of cunning or craftiness, saying:

To accustom a Child to have true Notions of things, and not to be satisfied till he has them; to raise his mind to great and worthy Thoughts, and to keep him at a Distance from Falsehood and Cunning, which has always a broad Mixture of Falsehood in it; is the fittest preparation of a child for Wisdom. (7: $140.)

Virtue Locke considered to be the most important of the qualities to be developed by education.

'Tis Virtue then [he said], direct Virtue, which is the hard and valuable Part to be aimed at in Education (7: $70). The great Principle and Foundation of all Virtue is placed in this: That a Man is able to deny himself his own Desires, cross his own Inclinations, and purely follow what Reason directs as best, though the Appetite lean the other Way. (7: $33.)

Aims of education secular but not irreligious.—Thus the fundamental aims of education were established by Locke without any mention of religion, indicating how much more secular than Comenius he was in his point of view. He was not a scoffer at religion, however, as were many of his followers on the Continent, but was a devout Christian. This found expression in 1695 in a treatise entitled "The Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures."

Religious instruction the foundation of virtue. So when he comes to discuss how virtue should be acquired, Locke says:

As the Foundation of this, there ought very early to be imprinted on his Mind a true Notion of God, as the independent Supreme Being, Author and Maker of all Things, from whom we receive all Good, who loves us, and gives us all things. And consequent to this instil into him a Love and Reverence of this Supreme Being. This is enough to begin with, without going to explain this Matter any farther; for fear lest by talking too early to him of Spirits, and being unseasonably forward to make him understand the incomprehensible Nature of that infinite Being, his head will be either fill'd with false, or perplex'd with unintelligible Notions of Him. . . . I am apt to think, that keeping Children constantly Morning and Evening to Acts of Devotion to God, as to their Maker, Preserver, and Benefactor, in some plain and short Form of Prayer suitable to their Age and Capacity, will be of more Use to them in Religion, Knowledge, and Virtue, than to distract their Thoughts with curious Enquiries into His inscrutable Essence and Being. (7: §136.)

Habituation, not precepts, the psychological basis of character. Other important factors in developing virtue, according to Locke, are training in telling the truth and training to

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