3. LAURIE, S. S. John Amos Comenius. (C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 1892.)

4. MONROE, W. S. Comenius and the Beginnings of Educational Reform. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900.)

5. NOHLE, E. History of the German School System, Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1897-1898, Vol. I, pp. 42-44. Contains the best easily accessible account of the Gotha system with its embodiment of Comenian ideas.

6. PAULSEN, F. German Education. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1908.)

Concerning Locke and his influence. 7. LOCKE, JOHN. Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Mr. Quick's edition of Locke's Thoughts (The Macmillan Company), with its biographical and critical introduction, is the best and practically the only necessary source for a brief study of Locke. I know of no good account of his educational influence (apart from his relation to Rousseau) in English. See almost any of the German histories of education, especially in connection with Basedow, for his influence on German pedagogy.

CHAPTER VIII

THE EMOTIONAL REACTION AGAINST RELIGIOUS AND ARISTOCRATIC FORMALISM-ROUSSEAU

Main points of the chapter. 1. The emotional reaction, of which Rousseau was the leader, was directed against religious formalism and all phases of extreme artificial conventionality which placed a check upon the emotions.

2. Among the forms of conventionality which Rousseau attacked were (a) the Calvinistic repression of all æsthetic emotions and of the activities and emotions of children; (b) the empty, insincere ceremonial and worship of the educated Catholics of France; (c) the elaborate etiquette of the courtly and wealthy classes, with its attendant idleness, extravagance, lack of home life, etc.

3. The educational fulcrum in this artificial courtly society was the dancing master, whose function it was to make children into miniature adults as quickly as possible.

4. Rousseau's life was largely that of an irresponsible parasite. The foundation of his character was emotional spontaneity.

5. In opposition to Puritanical repression he maintained that emotions and passions were intended by God as important and valuable parts of human life.

6. In opposition to empty, religious ceremonialism he preached a religion of faith and inward worship, based on a study of nature and on the principles of morality.

7. In opposition to social conventionality Rousseau idealized and popularized the following in his novel the "New Héloïse": (a) enjoyment of natural scenery; (b) romantic love between the sexes; (c) simple domestic life in a rural environment.

8. Rousseau inspired many of the tendencies which have since become dominant in religion, art, and literature. He influenced especially Goethe, Schiller, and other German writers.

Emotional reaction supplemented other secular movements. Various phases of the reaction against the ecclesiastical control of life have been described in a previous chapter,

namely, the scientific spirit, religious toleration, nationalism, and democracy. There remains to be described the emotional reaction which, while sincerely religious, was directed against the repressive views of Calvinism and the formal ceremonialism of French Catholicism. This emotional reaction attacked not only religious formalism but also all phases of extreme artificial conventionality which placed a check upon the emotions; hence it was directed particularly at the “drawingroom" life of the French aristocratic circles. Rousseau was the leader of this emotional reaction. We shall describe first the various types of formalism which prevailed and then take up Rousseau's reaction against them.

Religious formalism. Calvinistic repression of children's activities and emotions. - A brief statement of the repressive effect of Calvinistic Puritanism upon the emotional life was contained in the chapter on the curriculum of the Reformation elementary schools. The æsthetic emotions were included under the ban, the Puritans believing that beauty and religion were opposed; hence, as we have seen, there was no emotional appreciation of beauty in nature, art, music, or literature. All forms of natural enjoyment were condemned. Only such emotions as fear of the wrath of God and of eternal punishment were justified. This repression of spontaneity and emotional enjoyment bore particularly hard upon children, who were singled out by the Puritans as the particular imps of Satan, to be repressed and made over into theologizing prigs as soon as possible. Extreme Puritanism probably failed as completely in understanding and appreciating child life as any other system of thought that has ever prevailed. One of the best examples is furnished by Milton's harsh treatment of his little nephews whom he was educating, so harsh that his young wife went home against his will because she could not stand it to hear them cry when he beat them. Another phase of the Puritan failure to understand children was exhibited in the theological material contained in

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the textbooks described in an earlier chapter. The same was true of the little reading books for children. One of these, which had the greatest vogue in the later eighteenth century, was "A Looking Glass for Children," by James Janeway, a Puritan minister. It contained such admonitions to parents as : Your child is never too little to go to hell"; "Put your children upon learning their Catechism and the Scriptures, and getting to pray and weep by themselves." To children it said: "Every mother's child of you are by nature Children of Wrath. . . . How dost thou spend thy time; is it in play and idleness with wicked children? Do you dare to run up and down on the Lord's day, or do you keep in to read your book?" This book and others contained numerous anecdotes of exemplary, precocious children, most of whom did not live to be more than seven or eight years of age. These tales were probably the basis of the induction that the good die young, and it is hard to see how they encouraged children in the path of righteousness.

Religion an empty formula for educated Frenchmen. — In an earlier chapter we noted the institutional character of the Catholic religion. Connected with this characteristic is its elaborate ceremonial, which under normal conditions exerts a profound influence on the communicant's religious emotions. But under certain conditions this ceremonial becomes a mere empty formula without connection with any sincere religious attitudes. This was largely the condition at the time of the Protestant revolt in the sixteenth century, and, as we have seen, the Catholic Reformation at that time remedied the evil to a considerable extent. In France during the eighteenth century, however, the Church had degenerated to its former condition and needed another spiritual reform. This was due to the participation of the higher ecclesiastics in secular affairs; the openly immoral life of many of them; the failure of the Church to keep step with the advances in scientific knowledge and to adapt its beliefs to newly discovered truths.

The opposition of the Church to generally accepted discoveries alienated the educated classes, resulting in the most perfunctory acceptance of its teachings, ridicule of Christianity, or open irreligion and atheism. The following incident illustrates this attitude:

A little while ago [a chronicle narrates] some one put this question to one of the most respectable curates in Paris: Do you think that the bishops who insist so strenuously on religion have much of it themselves? The worthy pastor replied, after a moment's hesitation: There may be four or five among them who still believe." (1: 293.)

Among the poorer classes sincerity in religious life was probably the rule, but among the educated the opposite was the case. In their eyes a positive religion was only a popular superstition, good enough for children and innocents but not for "sensible people." They considered it a duty to raise one's hat to the Host as it passed, but the duty was only to raise the hat. (1: 292.)

Aristocratic formalism. Drawing-room life and the dancing-master" education. The " dancing-master" education developed in France in connection with the drawingroom life of the court of Louis XIV and his successors. The children of the European nobility had for centuries been educated by special agencies adapted to the duties and standards of the nobility. This education varied from one extreme of training for the efficient management of public affairs, to the other extreme of training merely in etiquette and polite intercourse..

Sketch of history of training of noble youth. — In the period of chivalry during the Middle Ages the noble youth passed through the stages of page, squire, and knight, generally being sent from home to live in the household of another noble. During the Renaissance (1300-1600), in the small principalities and other states of northern Italy, the many-sided life required of the efficient prince, statesman, diplomat, or soldier resulted in the development of an elaborate