arts and craft guilds. No such connection existed. In the first place, many of the guild schools were maintained by church guilds or other nonindustrial guilds. In the second place, the instruction in the guild schools was just like that in the other Latin schools, whether these were maintained by cathedral authorities or by chantry endowments.

4. Chantry schools. - Individuals often established endowments to maintain one or more priests to "chant" prayers for the souls of certain dead persons. In addition to these duties such priests were very commonly required to keep a Latin grammar school open to a stated number of pupils.

5. Schools in connection with almshouses, etc.- Almshouses and other institutions for poor relief were very numerous, and sometimes maintained Latin schools.

By the sixteenth century these Latin grammar or secondary schools were so numerous as to provide opportunity in most communities for boys who desired to study Latin as a preparation for higher university study or for a professional career. Leach estimates that there were over three hundred such schools in England about 1535, the chantry schools being most numerous. Inasmuch as many of the students in the Latin schools were preparing for the universities, we shall say a few words about these higher institutions.

Specialized professional and general education provided in the universities. The universities had grown up largely during the three centuries following 1100; the University of Paris about 1180, of Bologna in Italy about 1158, of Oxford about 1167, of Montpellier about 1181, of Cambridge about 1209, of Prague (the first of the German universities) in 1347. Most of these dates are given as approximate, because most of the early universities developed so gradually that it is difficult to set some one date as the birth year of any given institution.

Some early universities were largely specialized professional schools to train for certain practical activities. Thus the University of Bologna, as a school for lawyers, developed

in northern Italy to teach Roman law, in a situation where city life, the conflicts of city states with each other and with the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and the strife between the Emperor and the Pope, made legal practice an important and profitable business. In a similar way, for local reasons, a university of medicine grew up at Salerno (near Naples), where healing waters and a continuous contact with Greek life and culture, including the science of medicine, stimulated medical study. At Paris the great cathedral school of Notre Dame, through the importance of the city and, the fame of certain local teachers (William of Champeaux and Abelard), became a great center for theological study. This was another important practical pursuit, inasmuch as theology influenced all phases of medieval life. The Universities of Orleans and of Bologna were especially noted for the study of canon or church law, that is, the law which governed the behavior of the clergy, who constituted so large a part of the medieval population. Most of the universities also maintained a faculty of arts, in which younger students were trained in the arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, music, physics, metaphysics, psychology, ethics, politics, mathematics) either as a preparation for higher professional study or as the basis of a general education. Including the students in the arts and in the professional lines, an attendance of several thousand at a medieval university was not uncommon.

Thus we see that by the end of the Middle Ages a large system of Latin grammar schools and universities had grown up in Europe, so extensive that training in such schools was easily gotten by almost all youth who possessed any talent and ambition for it. We shall next take up the question of the demand and necessity for native elementary vernacular education and the provision for common schools.

Social factors in the development of medieval vernacular schools. Important factors in the development of vernacular elementary schools in northern Europe were the following:

Hic Bux et Comes et Baro Generosag puber
Subjectis difcunt imperitare. Juis

LECTURE ROOM IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN, GERMANY, ABOUT 1580

(1) the existence or nonexistence of written vernacular literature; (2) some means of disseminating this literature so as to make it generally available; (3) some prominent social interest or stimulus to read it; (4) practical demands, industrial and commercial, necessitating training in reading and writing the vernacular. The first and fourth factors, namely, the existence of written vernacular literature and commercial demands, will be considered in this chapter. The other factors, namely, the dissemination of literature and the development of a strong social interest in reading, will be discussed in the next chapter in connection with the invention of printing and the Reformation.

Tardy development of vernacular literature; English literature before the Reformation. The literature of England in the later Middle Ages may be divided into three classes, namely, (1) Anglo-Latin, (2) French, (3) English. Both Latin and French retarded the development of English literature down to the sixteenth century. They exerted a similar retarding influence on the vernacular in Germany even longer, that is, until the end of the eighteenth century. (6a: 86-89.) So important is this fact in relation to the development of vernacular education that we will consider each type of literature in England at some length.

Latin used by educated classes. -The fact that the secondary schools of medieval Europe existed primarily to teach the Latin language has already been mentioned. These schools prepared for the universities or for any career in which intercourse with educated people and a reading of general literature were factors. We have also noted that Latin was the official language of the Catholic Church, so much so that many of the higher dignitaries could express themselves with difficulty in their native tongue. Latin was the international language of diplomats and scholars. The lectures in the universities were delivered in Latin, and schoolboys were required to converse in it. It was natural that it should