As regards subsequent practice, Rousseau was the prophet of the spirit exhibited later by Pestalozzi as he entered into the lives of the poor children about him the spirit so commonly associated with Froebel and expressed in his invitation, "Come let us live with our children."

4. Rousseau's character not a factor in historical significance of the "Émile". - The education described in the 'Émile" is sometimes said to be but a reflection of Rousseau's own irresponsible life and character, and hence not deserving of much emphasis or study. The first part of this statement is only partially true, as may be judged from the opposite contention expressed in paragraph 3. Some of Rousseau's ideals as embodied in the " Émile" corresponded to his own character and some were opposite. Neither relation is of any special historical moment. Even if the "Émile" had been published anonymously, its historical significance in reflecting, protesting against, and modifying current educational practices would be the same.

5. Validity of theory in the "Émile" not an historical issue. The theory of education presented in the "Émile" is declared by some to be unsound or untrue, and destructive criticism should be the basis of studying it. The first part of this statement is only partially true. While much of the 'Émile" is not acceptable to-day, especially the theories of the moral development and education of children, yet many of its most fundamental principles are generally accepted as valid by scientific students of education. But even if they were not valid, the fact of their actual historical influence would be the same.

Influence of the "Émile" on subsequent practice to be emphasized. In the following discussion the five critical points of view enumerated above will not be taken, but those parts of the "Émile" will be discussed which were of large practical influence, and which became the basis of the development of elementary-school theory and practice during the

nineteenth century. In doing this we shall leave out of account certain parts that are commonly discussed at length. For example, Rousseau proposed to bring up his ideal imaginary pupil, Émile, in the country, as much removed from social influences as possible. In the "Emile" this "antisocial" phase of education occupies an important place, but among the most influential followers of Rousseau it did not-Basedow, Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel all placing a high educational value on social influences.

Education according to nature" an empty phrase. Another example of an element that we shall neglect is the idea of "education according to nature." Ordinarily the first sentence of the first chapter, "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the author of nature; everything degenerates in the hands of man," is chosen as the keynote of the book. As a corollary to this position Rousseau maintained that all interfering restrictive education was bad. Yet, although Rousseau's followers mentioned above nearly all adopt the general principle that "education should be according to nature," there is little agreement as to what such a natural education would be, and in no important case was it interpreted as a noninterfering, do-as-you-please treatment of the child. Basedow organized an elaborate machinery of instruction. Pestalozzi and Herbart believed in strict disciplining and much active instruction, and Froebel, who most resembles Rousseau in his general enthusiasm for "nature," organized a very complicated, artificial system of exercises for little children from three to five years of age.

Moreover, such high-sounding phrases as education according to nature" have little definite content. Hundreds of writers besides Rousseau have conjured with the word nature" in many different ways. What does it mean? At one extreme you find Rousseau, who would oppose nature to social organization, and at the other extreme those who include the highest form of social organization as one of the

phenomena of nature. Neither interpretation contributes very directly to the determination of practice in elementary schools.

"Émile" written primarily as a work on child study. — If we examine the preface of "Émile," we shall discover what Rousseau considered to be the fundamental point of view from which to study the book, as expressed in the following quotation :

We do not know childhood. Acting on the false ideas we have of it, the farther we go the farther we wander from the right path. Those who are wisest are attached to what is important for men to know, without considering what children are able to apprehend. They are always looking for the man in the child, without thinking of what he was before he became a man. This is the study upon which I am most intent, to the end that, though my method may be chimerical and false, profit may always be derived from my observations. I may have a very poor conception of what ought to be done, but I think I have a correct view of the subject on which we are to operate. Begin, then, by studying your pupils more thoroughly, for it is very certain that you do not know them.1 Now, if you read this book of mine with this purpose in view, I do not believe that it will be without profit to you. (1: xlii.)

If we adopt Rousseau's own recommendation, we will read the" Émile" to find out about children. This he said was the subject in which he was most interested, the one he knew most about, and the one a person should have in mind in reading the book. And it was this phase of the book that had the largest influence on subsequent practice. We have noted above how the " Émile" brought the care of children into style; and this was not a passing fashion, for there has continued a growing tendency to consider education not simply in terms of so much material to be learned, but in terms of the instincts and capacities of the child, his possibilities at different ages, his mental and physical responses. Education should be based on the maturing and cultivating of the child's instincts and capacities; this is the fundamental, influential, revolutionizing theory advocated in the "Émile." Accordingly it has been selected as the topic of this chapter.

1 Italics not in original.

Periods in the maturing of children; not miniature adults.

The first point to notice about children, according to Rousseau, is that they are not miniature adults, as they were conceived to be in the eighteenth century, but that they are psychologically very different from adults, and they exhibit characteristic differences at different ages. Some child-study experts at the present day divide the child's life roughly into growth periods; Rousseau did the same, distinguishing the periods as follows: from birth to five years; from five to twelve; from twelve to fifteen; from fifteen to twenty. According to Rousseau each of these periods possesses peculiar characteristics which are the results of the natural growth of the body, that is, due to the natural process of maturing.

Appropriate activities for each age; sentimental argument. —The second point to be noticed is that for each one of these stages there are certain appropriate activities or modes of living. If these appropriate activities are provided or stimulated, the healthiest, most satisfactory and complete maturing will result. If this is not done, but, on the contrary, activities suited to a later stage of maturity are provided, the final result will be less satisfactory.

Rousseau argues this position from two different standpoints - first, sentimental; second, scientific or psychological. The sentimental appeal which is quoted below is hardly such reasoning as an educator should be guided by, but it was probably more influential with sentimental people than the scientific argument.

Of all the children who are born, only a half, at most, come to adolescence; and it is probable that your pupil will not live to be a man.

What must we think, then, of that barbarous education which sacrifices the present to an uncertain future, which loads a child with chains of every sort, and begins by making him miserable in order to prepare for him, long in advance, some pretended happiness which it is probable he will never enjoy? Were I even to assume that education to be reasonable in its object, how could we witness, without indignation, these poor unfortunates subject to an insupportable yoke, and condemned,

like galley-slaves, to never-ending toil, without any assurance that such sacrifices will ever be useful to them? The age of mirth is passed in the midst of tears, chastisements, threats, and slavery.

O men, be humane; it is your foremost duty. Be humane to all classes and to all ages, to everything not foreign to mankind. What wisdom is there for you outside of humanity? Love childhood; encourage its sports, its pleasures, its amiable instincts. Who of you has not sometimes looked back with regret on that age when a smile was ever on the lips, when the soul was ever at peace? Why would you take from those little innocents the enjoyment of a time so short which is slipping from them, and of a good so precious which they cannot abuse? Why would you fill with bitterness and sorrow those early years so rapidly passing, which will no more return to them than to you? (1: 44-45.)

Psychological argument.-Rousseau's psychological argument for providing activities appropriate to each age of childhood is reiterated throughout the book. The following quotation is an example:

Nature would have children be children before being men. If we wish to pervert this order, we shall produce precocious fruits which will have neither maturity nor flavor, and will speedily deteriorate: we shall have young doctors and old children. Childhood has its own way of seeing, thinking, and feeling, and nothing is more foolish than to substitute our own for them.

Each age, each period of life, has its proper perfection, a sort of maturity which is all its own. (1: 121.)

Contemporary failure to appreciate stages of development. -To appreciate the relation to practice of this most fundamental of Rousseau's contentions, it is only necessary to recall the description of child life in the eighteenth century given in the previous chapter. The ideal of the parent was to make young ladies and gentlemen of children as early as possible. To this end they were initiated into adult activities as early as six years of age. In their portraits they were so generally represented as little grown-ups that one might wonder if there were any children in those days.

The same failure to provide material appropriate for children occurred in the work of the religious elementary schools,