experience; (4) to follow a psychological rather than a logical order; and (5) to construct his own simple apparatus.

Some of the advantages of these methods of studying science are summed up by Rousseau in these words:

The most obvious advantage of these slow and laborious investigations is to maintain, in the midst of speculative studies, the body in activity, the limbs in their flexibility, and the ceaseless training of the hands to labor and to employments useful to man. (1: 152.)

Home geography as an example of science instruction.— Examples of Rousseau's application of these principles may be taken from the teaching of geography and physics. Émile's study of geography was to begin as home geography,

as follows:

His first two starting points in geography will be the city where he lives and the country-seat of his father. After these will come the intermediate places, then the neighboring rivers, and lastly the observation of the sun and the manner of finding one's way. This is the point of reunion. Let him make for himself a map of all this. This map will be very simple, and composed, at first, of only two objects; but to these he will gradually add the others as he ascertains or estimates their distance and position. . . . It is not proposed that he should know the exact topography of the country, but the means of gaining this knowledge for himself. It is of little importance for him to carry maps in his head, provided he has a clear conception of what they represent, and a definite idea of the art which serves for constructing them. (1: 142.)

Elementary physics. - Émile's education in physics included work with the simple balance mentioned above; friction experiments with amber, glass, and wax, as an introduction to a study of magnetism; an introduction to the study of compression and expansion of air by experiments with an inverted glass over a basin of water; and other simple observations.

Influence of emphasis on science, especially home geography. Geography was the only phase of elementary science that received much recognition in elementary schools before

the second half of the nineteenth century; hence Rousseau's influence was largely limited to this subject. But in the teaching of home geography his methods were copied almost exactly by Salzmann and Pestalozzi and, partially through the influence of these men on the great German geographer Ritter, became the generally accepted methods in this subject. The general principles of science instruction as formulated by Rousseau have only recently found general application in the work in physics in high schools and in the nature study of elementary schools.

Sense perception, motor activity, and reasoning separated by Rousseau's followers.-Unfortunately the elements which Rousseau had combined in one process, namely, sense perception, motor activity, and the reasoned solution of problems, were generally separated and cultivated independently in subsequent practice. Thus sense perception developed into the passive or static description of objects, the "object teaching" of Pestalozzi; motor activity, as provided for in manual training, was often merely making a series of mechanical exercises, imitating models, involving no emphasis on a study of the qualities of materials or on a reasoning out of practical problems; and science instruction was for a long time mere bookwork, involving some abstract problems, but little contact with materials or construction of apparatus.

The vogue

Present interest, curiosity, and utility furnish motives for study. of the modern doctrine of interest that the way to get children to accomplish the work of the school is by having it appeal to their interest — is due in a considerable degree to its emphasis by Rousseau.

The following quotations are examples of his emphasis upon this factor in the "Émile":

Present interest is the grand motive power, the only one which leads with certainty to great results. . . . A great ado has been made about finding the best methods of teaching children to read. . . . A surer

means than all of these, and the one which is always forgotten, is the desire to learn. Give the child this desire, and you may lay aside your cabinets and dice. Every method will be a good one. (1: 82.)

There are a thousand ways of interesting them in measuring, ascertaining, and estimating distances. Here is a very tall cherry tree; how shall we proceed in order to pick cherries from it? Will the ladder in the barn answer the purpose? . . I would make a swing between these two trees; will a rope twelve feet long answer the purpose? (1: 101.)

Curiosity is another motive to be used in teaching. Rousseau would arouse curiosity by confronting the child with questions within the range of his understanding, for which he was to seek the answer. Curiosity properly directed, he said, was another "great motive power of education."

A third motive is the child's appreciation of the utility of what he is studying, particularly after twelve years of age. Hence Rousseau said:

As soon as we have succeeded in giving our pupil an idea of the word useful, we have another strong hold for governing him; for this word makes a strong impression on him, provided he has only an idea of it in proportion to his age, and already sees how it is related to his actual welfare. (1: 156.)

"Robinson Crusoe" to furnish imaginary practical problems. One of the most influential of Rousseau's detailed suggestions was his idea of using the story of "Robinson Crusoe" as a source of imaginary practical and scientific problems which children are to solve. His immediate followers in Germany shared his enthusiasm for "Robinson"; the presentday Herbartians in Germany use it as the core of scientific studies in the second grade, almost exactly as he suggested; and its use in a similar way is common in America. Rousseau used it as a means of "inventing a situation where all the natural needs of man are exhibited in a manner obvious to the mind of a child, and where the means of providing for these same needs are successively developed with the same facility." (1: 162.)

This book [Rousseau said] shall be the first which my Émile shall read; for a long time it will of itself constitute his whole library, and always hold a distinguished place in it. It shall be the text on which all our conversations on the natural sciences will serve merely as a commentary. (1: 163.)

Advocated industrial approach to the study of social relations. Rousseau underestimated the ability of children to understand social relations, but his suggestions as to the best basis of approaching the study of such relations have been followed somewhat by subsequent reformers, and have recently been given special emphasis in America by Dewey. The proper basis according to Rousseau is a study of industries, especially the division of labor and the exchange of commodities. He said:

Your greatest anxiety ought to be to divert the mind of your pupil from all the notions of social relations which are not within his comprehension; but when the relationships of knowledge compel you to show him the mutual dependence of men, instead of showing it to him on its moral side, first turn his attention to industry and the mechanic arts which make men useful to one another. In conducting him from shop to shop never suffer him to see any labor without putting his own hand to the work, nor to go away without perfectly knowing the reason of all that is done there. (1: 165.)

Thus Émile began with a study of such a simple industrial situation as was represented by Robinson Crusoe making all his own things. He proceeded next to a consideration of a small society involving a small amount of division of labor and exchange of products, and then to a study of these same factors in more complicated societies. Industrial operations and industrial products were to furnish the centers for a great variety of problems. Thus Émile learned a great deal about social life as it centered in industry. His training included also the mastery of a single trade, partly in order that he might be able to make his living by it if necessary, partly to overcome any social prejudice against workers, and partly for other educational advantages. Rousseau said:

All things considered, the trade which I would rather have to be the taste of my pupil is that of cabinet maker. It is cleanly, it is useful, and it may be practiced at home; it keeps the body sufficiently exercised; it requires of the workman skill and ingenuity, and in the form of the products which utility determines, elegance and taste are not excluded. (1: 183.)

Advocated many-sided maturing and training.— Rousseau believed in an all-round education for children. This idea was phrased by his followers as the "harmonious development of all the faculties," and as such had great vogue. Rousseau argued for such training from various standpoints : (1) That the general tendency of civilization is to narrow an individual through the specialization resulting from the division of labor. Education should correct this. (2) A specialized education, which fits the individual for only one kind of career, does not train him to adapt himself to changes in his fortunes. (3) A many-sided education is necessary in order to discover what the student's peculiar talents are.

Opposed the craze for examinable results. The results of the kind of education that Rousseau outlined cannot be as easily demonstrated by examination as the results of learning words and facts. Rousseau expressed this disadvantage in these words:

A teacher thinks of his own interest rather than that of his pupil. He endeavors to prove that he does not waste his time, and that he earns the money which is paid him; and so he furnishes the child with acquisitions capable of easy display, and which can be exhibited at will. Provided it can be easily seen, it matters not whether what he learns is useful. He stores his memory with this rubbish, without discernment and without choice. When the time comes for examining the child he is made to display his wares; he brings them out and we are satisfied; then he ties up his bundle and goes his way. My pupil is not so rich; he has no bundle to display, he has nothing to show but himself. Now a child can no more be seen in a moment than a man. (1: 129.)

This craze for examinable results has always retarded the organization of education like that which Rousseau favored. Thus Pestalozzi, starting out to put Rousseau's theories into