practice, soon became so possessed of the examination idea that, as one of his subordinates said, we all fell into a restless pushing and driving, and the individual teachers into a scramble over distinction." Revolutionary character and validity of Rousseau's proposals. The revolutionary nature of Rousseau's theories readily appears when we contrast them with the kind of education described in Chapters IV and VIII. The far-reaching effects of his suggestions on actual practice will be traced in the subsequent chapters. A few of his recommendations had almost immediate effect, while others have only recently been carried out. Many of those given in the list below are now accepted as valid by scientific students of education, who base their beliefs on experimental psychology. ९९ Immediate influence of "Émile" greatest in Germany. The immediate influence of the "Émile" on educational theory and practice was greatest in Switzerland and Germany. In Germany the general enthusiasm created by the Émile" was taken advantage of by Basedow and Salzmann to organize experimental and model schools along the lines suggested by Locke and Rousseau. In Switzerland Pestalozzi, directly inspired by the "Émile," labored for over fifty years to develop reformed methods, which to a considerable extent followed the lines suggested by Rousseau. Pestalozzi's labors were continued by Herbart and Froebel in Germany. Froebel's chief theoretical work, the "Education of Man," reiterates many of Rousseau's fundamental principles in almost the same words. Finally, the recent educational reforms proposed by Dewey and Colonel Parker embody some of Rousseau's theories, although not derived directly from the latter. The following summary of some of Rousseau's propositions contains after each one a hint concerning its later development by the educators mentioned above. The principles are arranged roughly in the order in which they received emphasis by theorists and affected practice at least in experimental schools. Summary of Rousseau's principles and their emphasis by subsequent theorists. 1. Many-sided maturing and training is the aim of education. Especially emphasized by the Pestalozzians as the " harmonious development of all the faculties"; by Herbart as many-sideȧ interests." 2. Education should be based on the maturing of the child's instincts and capacities. Emphasized by Pestalozzi partially, by Froebel especially. 3. Appropriate activities should be provided for each age. Emphasized by Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel. 4. Sense perception is fundamental in elementary education. Emphasized by Basedow; and in Pestalozzian " object teaching " especially. 5. Theological aspects of religion are not suited to children. Emphasized by Basedow and Pestalozzi. 6. Home geography should be the starting point of geography teaching. Emphasized by Pestalozzi; a direct connection existed from Rousseau through Salzmann, Pestalozzi, the great German geographer Ritter, Professor Guyot (of Princeton University), to Colonel F. W. Parker. 7. Robinson Crusoe " should furnish the basis for scientific and practical studies. Emphasized by Basedow and assistants, and by the modern Herbartians. 8. Premature memorizing of words and symbols is pernicious and spoils the child's judgment. Emphasized by Pestalozzi at first, but his teaching soon degenerated into memorizing; also emphasized by Herbart and all later reformers. 9. Present interest and curiosity should motivate elementary instruction. Emphasized by Basedow and Herbart. 10. Physical activity is essential for healthy growth. Emphasized by Basedow, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. II. Motor activity should be connected with observation and reasoning. Emphasized by Basedow; by Pestalozzi to a limited extent; by Froebel especially; and by Dewey. 12. The ability of children to reason justifies emphasis on the investigation of small problems of applied science. This principle was long neglected. Emphasized by Froebel somewhat, and recently by Dewey. 13. Drawing from models, combining sense perception and motor activity, should start with crude attempts of the child at expression. Recently emphasized by Colonel Parker and Dewey. 14. The study of social relations should be approached from the industrial standpoint. Emphasized by Basedow, Pestalozzi, and Froebel to a limited extent; special emphasis by Dewey. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES For a study of Rousseau's educational theory the best method is to read and reread, time and again, Rousseau's preface and the first three (or possibly four) books of the " Émile," noting, for historical purposes, Rousseau's own references to contemporary practice and to Locke and other writers. Too often instructors and students peruse the " Émile " hastily once or twice and then learn what some commentator has written. Many commentators have made an equally cursory study of the "Émile" and have discussed it from some biased ethical point of view, without relating the book to the systems of education which it reflected and in turn modified. For a discussion of Rousseau in relation to the social situation in which he moved, see Taine (No. 2 below). 1. Rousseau, J. J. Emile. The references in the text are to the Appleton edition, translated by Payne. The Heath edition (paper, 25 cents; cloth, 90 cents) is almost as good for students. The edition in Everyman's Library is the only complete edition in English. 2. TAINE, H. A. The Ancient Régime. (Henry Holt and Company, 1896.) An admirable analytical table of contents and a complete index make it easy to locate discussions of Rousseau and related topics. Also referred to in chapter. - 3. QUICK, R. H. Educational Re formers. (Appleton, revised edition.) CHAPTER X SECULARIZING1 AND NATIONALIZING TENDENCIES IN PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Main points of the chapter. I. The influence of Rousseau's 'Émile," combined with the efficient measures of the Prussian kings, started the secularization of Prussian education in the eighteenth century. 2. The leading theoretical agitator in favor of secularized schools was Basedow (1723–1790), a fanatical exponent of the theories of Locke and Rousseau. 3. These theories were successfully applied for over a century in the private school of Salzmann (1744-1811), opened at Schnepfenthal in 1784. 4. Basedow's theories were also successfully applied in rural schools for peasant children by Baron von Rochow (1734-1805) about 1772, as a means of relieving social distress among the peasants which resulted from ignorance and stupidity. 5. Rochow advocated the organization of a national system of schools patterned after his model rural schools. 6. The Prussian kings had been actively endeavoring to organize effective rural elementary schools from the beginning of the eighteenth century. 7. The endeavors of these efficient monarchs were only partially successful, however, owing to the opposition of ignorant and selfish public opinion. 8. By the end of the century the legal character of the schools as essentially state institutions, subject to state control in every respect, was established in the fundamental Prussian legal code. 1 The term "secular schools" is used in this book roughly to designate schools in which the primary or fundamental control is in the hands of the state or the city or some other lay authority, and in which training for participation in the various lay activities of life plays a large part. Hence, at the end of the eighteenth century, since the Prussian schools were legally defined and controlled as state institutions, they were fundamentally secular, even though the clergy were still used as school directors subordinate to the state. Moreover, religious instruction may be permitted in a school and yet it may be called a "secular school" if its aims and curriculum are predominantly secular or nonreligious. See quotation from Paulsen, p. 218. 9. The king's minister, Zedlitz, an enthusiastic champion of the ideas and experiments of Basedow and Rochow, was one of the influential factors in these official developments. 10. A unique feature of the final result in Prussia was that the control of the schools was secularized without the elimination of religious instruction. Secular interests focused on educational reform by Rousseau's "Émile." — The publication of Rousseau's "Émile" (1762) brought to a focus in Germany strivings for educational reform which, in half a century, resulted in the establishment of the first modern, secular, state school system of the larger European states, namely, that of Prussia. The "Émile" did not create these strivings, but it gave the additional inspiration and stimulus necessary to arouse effective action. The typical leaders in this reform were a fanatical educational theorist (Basedow); an enthusiastic, sane, practical experimenter (Salzmann); a kind-hearted, efficient nobleman, friend of the unhappy peasants on his estates (Rochow); a broad-minded, intelligent, progressive, efficient monarch (Frederick the Great); and his patriotic minister (Zedlitz). Agitation for nonsectarian, national education: Basedow. Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790), the leading agitator in this movement, was a relatively mediocre thinker; but, moved by fanatical opposition to the narrow-minded sectarianism which prevailed in German thought and education, he succeeded in uniting the various lines of secularizing interests which we have studied, by an appeal to public-spirited philanthropists to contribute funds which would furnish the means of opening and conducting schools on a reformed basis. The same kind of attack as was made by Voltaire and Rousseau in France on the insincerity, formalism, and other evils of the narrow sectarian religious spirit which prevailed, was carried on in Germany by a number of famous university professors. Chief among these was Christian Wolff, professor at the University of Halle in Prussia from 1707 to 1723 and from 1740 to 1754. Wolff came to Halle as professor of |