CHAPTER XII

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN SECULAR SCHOOL SYSTEMS

Main points of the chapter.—1. The development of American secular school systems involved some of the same factors as we have studied in the case of Prussia and England.

2. Four systems will be described as typical of the general development in America. These systems are the following: (1) New York City, where free schools were first organized on a large scale by a private philanthropic society; (2) Pennsylvania, where they developed first as pauper schools; (3) Massachusetts, where the degeneration to the districtschool system and the regeneration of the town system were prominent; (4) Indiana, where a campaign of thirty years was necessary to realize the requirements of the state constitution for public schools free to all.

3. The development of free public schools was retarded by sectarian religious jealousies; by payment of public funds to private schools; by the conception of free schools as pauper schools; by false standards of democracy, including local self-government by very small units.

4. The Lancasterian system of monitorial instruction, on account of its cheapness, was an important influence in developing sentiment in favor of tax-supported schools.

New York City, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Indiana are typical. The two preceding chapters described the secularization, by radically different processes, of the elementary schools of two European countries. In the case of Prussia the process of secularization was the outcome primarily of the energetic efforts of a line of enlightened absolute monarchs, whose acts were much in advance of general public opinion. In democratic England the process of secularization depended on the slow development of public opinion in conflict with the vested interests of voluntary religious educational societies, and was greatly retarded by intense sectarian jealousies.

In the United States we find some of the same elements that entered into Prussian and English situations appearing as partial factors in the development of state and city systems of public schools. We will take up for consideration four examples of American development, which will serve as types and help us to appreciate the various factors that entered into the organization of American public-school systems. These four examples may be briefly characterized as follows:

New York City shows a development somewhat similar to that in England, inasmuch as the provisions for elementary education remained for a long time (until 1842) in the form of schools maintained by churches, private interests, and voluntary philanthropic societies. The vested interests and sectarian jealousies resulting from the fact that these societies shared in the public funds both retarded and stimulated the development of secular schools controlled by city authorities.

In Pennsylvania for a long time (practically until 1834) elementary education was generally provided for in church, private, and voluntary "neighborhood" schools. The first state provision (1802) took the form of payment of the tuition of poor children only, thus establishing the idea of public schools as pauper schools. This was followed by a long and bitter struggle in the state legislature for free public schools for all children. These were authorized in 1834.

In both New York City and Pennsylvania the Lancasterian monitorial system, as a cheap means of instruction, was influential in developing a sentiment in favor of public schools and improved instruction.

Massachusetts, with a state system of public schools existing from 1647, will serve as an example of degeneration from a relatively liberal provision for public elementary education to a relatively poor provision. This degeneration took place as the management of school affairs was gradually delegated to very small local units known as school districts. In the early nineteenth century the correction of the deplorable

conditions which had developed was begun by what is known as the Common School Revival, in which Horace Mann was the most prominent leader.

Indiana will be discussed as an example of one of the younger states, in which the state constitution (1816) made. provision for developing public elementary schools, but where a long legislative and legal struggle was necessary to secure the laws providing for the support of the schools by local taxation.

New York City. Schools developed by voluntary philanthropic societies. As stated above, the history of the elementary schools of New York City is similar in many respects to that of English elementary schools. New York as a colony was a royal province administered by an English governor, and consequently, until the American Revolution its political and educational institutions were similar to those of England. The largest general provision made for elementary schools was by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which, as we have seen, was organized in England in 1701 practically as the foreign-mission branch of the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge. The former society maintained many elementary schools in New York.

After the Revolution the following important actions were taken by the New York state legislature before 1805. In 1789 a law was passed intended to encourage the maintenance of elementary schools. It set apart certain lands for school purposes. In 1795 Governor George Clinton urged the establishment of common schools throughout the state. The same year a law was passed appropriating annually for five years £20,000, to be paid to county treasurers in proportion to the population. Local authorities were to raise by tax one half the amount of the state appropriation, and the whole was to be used to pay teachers' salaries.

No public schools in New York City in 1805.-These state provisions had little effect on the schools of New York City by 1805. The city at that time had a population of 75,000,

with one hundred forty-one teachers giving instruction in private and church schools. Most of the schools were very small, an attendance of seventy-five being considerable. Individual churches very commonly maintained schools, including charity schools," which were usually intended for the poor children of their own congregations. These scattered provisions were entirely inadequate to provide for the educational needs of such a large city.

Free School Society incorporated, 1805. In view of this fact a small body of private individuals presented a memorial to the legislature asking for the incorporation of "The Society for establishing a Free School in the City of New York" for children "who do not belong to, or are not provided for by, any religious society." The request was granted.

The society secured aid from state and city. The society opened its first school in 1806, using the Lancasterian monitorial system. In 1807, on petition from the society, the state legislature gave $4000 for the erection of a building for the education of poor children, and $1000 annually for general expenses. In 1808 the city granted the society a lot valued at $10,000, and in 1809 a building was erected which accommodated five hundred children in one room for instruction by the monitorial system. In 1810 $4000 more was received from the state.

Shared annually in state common-school fund. — In 1815 the society received over $3000 from the first apportionment of the state common-school fund. This fund had been created by the legislature in 1805 by appropriating to the support of common schools the proceeds from five hundred thousand acres of public lands, as soon as the annual interest amounted to $50,000. The society gradually established more and more schools, as they were able to meet the needs of different parts of the city.

Combined pay and free system a failure. In 1826 the society secured a new charter from the state, changing its

name from the Free School Society to the Public School Society of New York, and authorizing it to require a “moderate compensation " from children who were able to pay. This proved to be a serious mistake, however. There was an immediate falling off in attendance because many parents were 'too poor to pay and too proud to confess their poverty." In 1832 this pay system was abolished and the schools again made free to all.

Conflicts with sectarian interests develop public schools.The facts presented above give a general idea of the early development of the society and its use of public funds and property secured from the state and the city. Up to 1820 the society prospered and experienced little friction or opposition in its enterprises.

From about 1820 its history includes a number of serious conflicts with religious educational agencies. These conflicts involved sectarian jealousies and resulted in the gradual establishment of public schools under the control of city authorities. We will now outline these sectarian conflicts and the parallel development of control by the city authorities.

Baptist church shared state funds for school building. In 1820 the Bethel Baptist Church secured some of the funds of the state appropriation, and in 1822 it was authorized to use its surplus in erecting school buildings. This immediately aroused the suspicions of the Free School Society, which maintained that inasmuch as the buildings became the permanent property of the Baptist church, the state funds were being used for sectarian profit. It tried to get the law of 1822 repealed, but without avail. The Bethel Baptist Church soon had three schools opened, and inasmuch as they drew pupils from the society's schools, the former received a proportionate share of the state appropriation which the society lost.

City council refused state funds to religious societies. As a result of the controversy, however, the legislature placed the distribution of New York City's share of the state school