Updegraff says, "That the dame school was a factor in bringing about the moving school-that it was a center for group feeling and action respecting schools - there can be no doubt." (6: 143.)

Such were the social factors which were influential in the decline in the conditions in the public elementary town schools of Massachusetts; namely, (1) disappearance of the unified Calvinistic despotism; (2) scattering of the population; (3) decline in the general intellectual status of the colonists; (4) the decentralizing influence of the democratic principles of local government and equality of opportunity; and (5) the convenience of the private dame schools.

Description of establishment of a moving school, 1702.As stated above, the law of 1701, increasing the fine from ten pounds to twenty pounds for failure of a town to maintain a schoolmaster, influenced towns which had previously paid the fine to maintain moving schools instead. An example of such a moving school is found in the town record of Malden, Massachusetts, for 1702. It reads as follows:

John Sprague is chosen schoolmaster for ye year ensuing to teach children to read and write and to refmetik according to his best skill, and he is to have ten pounds paid him by ye town for his pains. The school is to be free for all ye inhabitants of this town and to be kept in four several places, one quarter of a year in a place. (6: 154.)

Massachusetts district schools spent their share of town taxes, 1789. The tendency to delegate the control of school affairs to smaller local units was continued in the development of autonomous school districts within the town. Such a division of towns into districts was begun shortly before the middle of the eighteenth century and was a common practice by the time of the Revolutionary War. In 1789 the state legislature passed a fundamental law legalizing many of the practices that had grown up, including the district system. At first each district enjoyed only the privilege of using its share of the town tax to support its own small school, but in

1800 the districts themselves were authorized to levy school taxes. In 1817 they were made corporations with power to enforce contracts, etc., and in 1827 were empowered to choose a committeeman who had charge of the school property and of the employment of teachers.

The school district now, from being a mere social convenience, has become a political institution. . . . The year 1827, therefore, is a memorable one. It marks the culmination of a process which had been going on for more than a century. It marks the utmost limit to the subdivision of American sovereignty the high-water mark of modern democracy, and the low-water mark of the Massachusetts school system. (4: 92.)

Selfish political strife dominated school districts. - The school districts as thus organized became seething centers of selfish political activity, motivated by petty private interests, usually opposed to the common good. The election of the school committeeman, the selection of the site of the school building, the employment of the teacher-all became issues in intense local strife. Where a school district received for the support of its school only such part of the town tax as it paid (which was often the case), a poor district had only sufficient funds to maintain a very cheap school for a very few months. Before the district system had reached this "high-water mark" in 1827, however, agitation against it was active and had resulted in the beginning of a reform which found expression in the law of 1826.

Common-school revival; regeneration of town system in Massachusetts. The common-school revival by which the public elementary-school system of Massachusetts was regenerated occupies, roughly, the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Various social changes, such as the growth of manufacturing towns, philanthropic movements, etc., were influential in bringing about this revival. We shall give here, however, only a brief account of the actual changes in the school system, with notices of two individuals who were prominent leaders in the movement.

Reform legislation secured by Mr. Carter. The passing of the laws which served as the basis of the reforms was largely due to the personal efforts of James G. Carter (1795-1849), who for years, beginning about 1824, conducted in the public press and by public address a vigorous attack on existing conditions, with definite suggestions for improving them. As a member of the state legislature, Mr. Carter's great parliamentary ability enabled him to secure the passage of laws under conditions of opposition which would have defeated a less talented leader.

Supervision of schools by committee of town ordered, 1826. - Legislation resulting from these efforts was passed in 1826 and was one of the first official steps to remedy the evils of the district system. By this law every town was required to choose a school committee to have general charge of all the schools of the town, to select textbooks, and to examine and certify teachers, though the district committeeman could still employ the teacher. This law was opposed by many districts as depriving them of privileges which they had enjoyed. It is significant as a step in the direction of centralization of control and specialization in the supervision of schools. This supervision had formerly been in the hands of a committee which included the ministers and selectmen of the town. Supervision by a special school committee instead was a step in the direction of the development of professional standards. State school fund put state in touch with local units. In 1834 a state school fund was created. In order to share in the proceeds of this fund, towns were required to raise by tax at least one dollar for each child of school age, and to make such statistical reports as the state required. By this means the central state government was put in direct touch with each local school situation.

Massachusetts State Board of Education created, 1837. Finally, in 1837 as a result of Mr. Carter's skillful labors, the legislature, after considerable contest, created the State Board

of Education, consisting of eight members appointed by the governor and council. The Board was given no executive power, but was to secure information concerning the schools. of the state and to recommend changes to the legislature. It was to appoint a secretary who was to study the school system and diffuse information concerning the best methods of instruction, etc.

Horace Mann, secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education for twelve years. Horace Mann (1796-1859), who was a member of the Board, was chosen as its first secretary and served for twelve years. During this period so much was accomplished that the common-school revival has become inseparably linked with the name of Horace Mann. At the time of his appointment he was president of the state senate. He was a well-trained and successful lawyer, capable in public address, of strong moral principles, and thoroughly unselfish in his devotion to the public good. He had been prominent in politics, and in later life was a member of Congress. He died while president of Antioch College in Ohio.

Three agencies in developing public sentiment. — In carrying out his duties Mr. Mann secured reports concerning the deplorable condition of the district schools. These reports he published and discussed as a basis of improving public sentiment. In his campaign of education he employed three agencies. First, he traveled throughout the state organizing conventions and public meetings, at which he lectured on improvements in the schools. Second, he issued annual reports which showed the defects in existing conditions and described the superior methods and conditions which prevailed in Europe and elsewhere. Third, he conducted the Common School Journal as a periodical message to teachers and citizens. Inasmuch as the Board had no real power, the efficiency of the secretary depended on his skill in securing changes in public sentiment that would result in local and state legislation.

Summary of improvements under Horace Mann. — Mr. Mann's success in this direction during the twelve years that he was secretary is thus summarized by Martin in his "Evolution of the Massachusetts School System."

Statistics tell us that the appropriations for public schools had doubled; that more than two million dollars had been spent in providing better schoolhouses; that the wages of men as teachers had increased sixty-two per cent, of women fifty-one per cent; one month had been added to the average length of the schools; the ratio of private-school expenditures to those of the public schools had diminished from seventy-five per cent to thirty-six per cent; the compensation of school committees had been made compulsory, and their supervision was more general and more constant; three normal schools had been established, and had sent out several hundred teachers, who were making themselves felt in all parts of the state.

All these changes, great as they were in themselves, had their chief significance as indications of a new public spirit. The great work which had been accomplished had been to change the apathy and indifference of the people toward the common schools into appreciation and active interest. (4: 174.)

Fear of Prussian centralization; districts abolished, 1882. These ends were not secured, however, without strenuous opposition from the conservative forces, especially the schoolmasters themselves and the sectarian religious interests. Efforts were made to secure the abolition of the Board of Education as savoring too much of "Prussian centralization," but they were unsuccessful. On the other hand, the reform forces did not succeed in securing the permanent legal abolition of the district-school system until 1882, although it had been voluntarily given up in most places before that time.

Indiana; struggle to carry out liberal constitutional provision. The development of the school system in Indiana is significant in the advanced provision made in the first constitution (1816) for free schools for all, and in the long struggle necessary to educate public sentiment to carry out the requirements of the constitution.