question of education in all its aspects, the result of which was a more enlightened public sentiment on the subject. In addition, to the Lancasterian system Philadelphia and Pennsylvania are deeply indebted for another thing. It brought with it the idea of the necessity of trained teachers, and this idea outlived the system of which it was a part, and became permanently incorporated into the educational policy of the city and the state. The establishment of a Model School for the preparation of teachers was provided for in the law of 1818, and as a school of this kind it was the first established in the country. In 1821 this school was attended by five hundred and sixty-four pupils, and teachers were prepared therein not only for the schools of the city, but to some extent for those in other parts of the state. (8: 289.) Reformed methods in secularized schools devised by Pestalozzians. The last three chapters described the development of secular school systems in Prussia, England, and the United States. This development represents the culmination of the secularizing movement, of which certain general social aspects were described in Chapters VI and VIII. As soon as these secular systems of schools were established by the various governments, the way was opened for the development of adequate school support, of training for teachers, of an enriched curriculum, and of improved methods. The initial direction of these improvements in the actual work of the elementary schools was determined largely by Rousseau's "Émile." We have traced this influence in Germany in connection with the work of Basedow and his followers. The Basedow movement did not affect other countries to any great extent, but the efforts of a second follower of Rousseau, namely Pestalozzi, revolutionized the methods of teaching in elementary schools in many of the countries of Europe as well as in the United States. The rest of the book will be devoted largely to a discussion of the work of Pestalozzi and his disciples, including Herbart and Froebel. The Pestalozzian movement proper and its methods will be discussed in four chapters. These will describe the general development of the movement, the organization of industrial education for the reform of juvenile delinquents, the develop ment of oral and objective methods in natural science, geography, and arithmetic, and some of the pernicious formalizing elements in Pestalozzian practice. A long chapter will then be devoted to the Herbartian movement, which emphasized especially the possibilities of moral training through an interested methodical study of history and literature. Finally, the development of methods of manual constructive work and the use of social participation as an educative factor in elementary schools will be discussed in connection with the Froebelians. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES Concerning the general social basis of American school systems. — 1. CUBBERLEY, E. P. Changing Conceptions of Education. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1909.) Chaps. i and ii. A brief but masterly interpretation in inexpensive form. 2. CARLTON, F. T. Economic Influences upon Educational Progress in the United States, 1820-1850, Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, 1908. A very valuable dissertation on topics for which space was lacking in this chapter. Concerning the systems described in this chapter (all of the following are easy to secure except No. 8).-3. PALMER. History of the Public Schools of New York City. (The Macmillan Company, 1905.) 4. MARTIN, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. (D. Appleton and Company, 1894.) 5. HINSDALE, B. A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899.) For Massachusetts. 6. UPDEGRAFF, H. Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts. (Columbia University Contribution to Education, 1908.) 7. BOONE, R. G. History of Education in Indiana. (D. Appleton and Company, 1892.) 8. WICKERSHAM, J. P. History of Education in Pennsylvania. (Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1886.) 8 a. HINSDALE, B. A. Documents Illustrative of American Educational History, Report of the United States Commission of Educa tion, 1892-1893, pp. 1225-1414. Concerning the Lancasterian schools. The literature is usually not to be obtained in small libraries. Wickersham (No. 8 above) describes the Lancasterian schools of Pennsylvania, and Palmer (No. 3) those of New York. The following are important sources. 9. BOURNE, W. O. History of the Public School Society of New York City. (Wood and Co., New York, 1870.) 10. WIGHTMAN, J. M. Annals of the Boston Primary School Committee. (Rand and Avery, 1860.) II. RUSSELL, Wм. Manual of Mutual Instruction. (Boston, 1826.) 12. GRISCOM, JOHN. Memoir of John Griscom. (New York, 1859.) PART IV. SECULARIZED ELEMEN TARY EDUCATION CHAPTER XIII THE PESTALOZZIAN MOVEMENT IN EUROPE AND AMERICA1 Main points of the chapter. 1. The Pestalozzian movement was a direct continuation of the strivings for social and educational reforms which were stimulated by Rousseau's revolutionary books. 2. At first (1774-1799) Pestalozzi's endeavors were directed toward an improvement of the social condition of the lower classes through industrial education. 3. Later (1800) he turned his attention to the experimental determination of the most psychological methods of teaching elementary-school subjects. His experimental schools were famous during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. 4. His educational spirit and methods were adopted in Prussia as one phase of a national movement for social regeneration. 5. His methods were developed in England primarily for school purposes rather than for broader social purposes; hence they were highly formalized. 6. The informal Swiss and Prussian Pestalozzianism became generally known in the United States before 1860 through educational periodicals and official reports. It was adopted in a few schools. 7. Formalized English Pestalozzianism was imported into Oswego, New York, in 1860, and during the next twenty years was very generally adopted throughout the country. The largest factor in reforming elementary-school practice.- Pestalozzi (1746-1827), inspired by Rousseau and the movement in which the latter was the chief figure, conducted 1 Special supplementary reading: Pestalozzi, "Leonard and Gertrude." See above, p. xxiii, for further suggestions. in Switzerland for twenty-five years (1799-1825) experimental schools which were the mecca for European and American educational leaders. The methods developed in these schools produced almost as radical reforms in teaching in elementary schools as Rousseau had proposed in educational theory. The influence exerted by Pestalozzi's writings, and by his schools and the teachers trained therein, was the largest factor in changing elementary-school practice between 1800 and 1860. To be sure, other factors coöperated with Pestalozzi's work to bring about a revolution in elementary-school work; for example, the movement for the improvement of Prussian schools which adopted Pestalozzi's methods, but which was independent of him in its origin. But the Pestalozzian movement was so large a factor that it deserves more space and emphasis than any other phase of the history of modern elementary education. Some of the innovations in practice introduced by Pestalozzi were real improvements; others, however, were no better than the very poor methods which prevailed in elementary schools in 1800. Directly inspired by Rousseau's revolutionary books. To understand the Pestalozzian movement it is important to appreciate its direct connection with Rousseau. Pestalozzi's words show this very clearly. He said: The moment Rousseau's "Émile" appeared, my visionary and highly speculative mind was enthusiastically seized by the visionary and highly speculative book. I compared the education which I enjoyed in the corner of my mother's parlor, and also in the school which I frequented, Iwith that which Rousseau demanded for the education of his Emilius. The home as well as the public education of the whole world, and of all ranks of society, appeared to me altogether as a crippled thing, which was to find a universal remedy for its present pitiful condition in Rousseau's lofty ideas. The ideal system of liberty, also, to which Rousseau imparted fresh animation, increased in me the visionary desire for a more extended sphere of activity in which I might promote the welfare and happiness of the people. Juvenile ideas as to what it was necessary and possible to do in this respect in my native town [Zurich], induced me to abandon the clerical profession, to which I had formerly leaned, and for which I |