had been destined, and caused the thought to spring up within me, that it might be possible, by the study of law, to find a career that would be likely to procure for me, sooner or later, the opportunity and means of exerting an active influence on the civil conditions of my native town and even of my native land. (3: 28.)

Pestalozzi's first educational experiments were in the training of his own child on a farm, and Rousseau's "Émile" was his guide. The Journal which Pestalozzi kept of this experiment is largely a running commentary on the "Émile,” sometimes quoting it almost verbatim, sometimes taking exception to Rousseau's suggestions. The following quotation from the Journal sounds very familiar after reading the "Émile":

Lead your child out into nature, teach him on the hilltops and in the valleys. There he will listen better, and the sense of freedom will give him more strength to overcome difficulties. But in these hours of freedom let him be taught by nature rather than by you. Let him fully realize that she is the real teacher and that you, with your art, do nothing more than walk quietly by her side. Should a bird sing or an insect hum on a leaf, at once stop your talk; bird and insect are teaching him; you may be silent. (5 45.)

On the other hand, Pestalozzi corrected Rousseau's false theories of moral training. Concerning liberty and obedience he said:

Which of these is the true position and which is the false? Liberty is good, and so is obedience. We must reconcile what Rousseau separated when, struck by the evils of unwise restraint that only tends to degrade humanity, he advocates unbounded liberty. Let us endeavor to see how far he was right and profit by his wisdom. (5: 47.)

In the following systematic discussion of the Pestalozzian movement we shall take up in order Pestalozzi's general theories, his life and work in relation to the general social movements in Switzerland, the spread of his practices particularly in Germany, England, and America, and shall devote separate chapters to the three main phases of his influence on practice, namely, industrial training for juvenile reform, object

teaching and oral methods, and the Pestalozzian formalism, including degenerate object teaching and the doctrine of proceeding from the simple to the complex.

Pestalozzian principles. To psychologize education.— In summarizing Pestalozzi's fundamental principles we shall note certain ones that are merely reiterations of Rousseau's ideas, and others in which Pestalozzi is more independent. The statements which are most in line with Rousseau's ideas concern basing education on a study of the child's development. The most trite of these is Pestalozzi's remark, "I desire to psychologize education." One of the things included in "psychologizing" was to be the cultivation of the child's instincts and capacities. Hence Pestalozzi said:

Man can, at best, do no more than assist the child's nature in the effort which it makes for its own development; and to do this, so that the impressions made upon the child may always be commensurate, and in harmony, with the measure and character of the powers already unfolded in him, is the great secret of education. (3: 172.)

Education . . . involves the harmonious balance of all a man's powers, and this involves the natural development of each and all. (3: 170.)

Education, instead of merely considering what is to be imparted to children, ought to consider first what they may be said already to possess, if not as a developed, at least as an involved faculty capable of development. Or if, instead of speaking thus in the abstract, we will but recollect that it is to the great Author of life that man owes the possession, and is responsible for the use, of his innate faculties, education should not only decide what is to be made of a child, but rather inquire, what is a child qualified for; what is his destiny, as a created and responsible being; what are his faculties as a rational and moral being; what are the means pointed out for their perfection, and the end held out as the highest object of their efforts? They embrace the rightful claims of all classes to a general diffusion of useful knowledge, a careful development of the intellect, and judicious attention to all the faculties of man, physical, intellectual and moral.

Four meanings of "development of faculties." — The phrase "development of the faculties" became a byword with the followers of Pestalozzi and was used with various meanings. Four of these may be distinguished:

1. The first meaning is the appearance of an instinct or capacity, such as the instinct to walk, which is not present in the child at birth, but is "delayed" in appearance or

development." As Rousseau said, it does more harm than good to try to teach children to walk before the instinct has appeared or "developed." On this basis of delayed instincts or capacities Rousseau and Pestalozzi both rejected the teaching of history to children because, they claimed, the capacity to understand the moral issues in history does not appear in the child until adolescence.

2. The second meaning of the phrase "development of a faculty" is its natural maturing or growth, as illustrated in the maturing of the child's capacities for oral speech first a few cries, then a more and more elaborate babbling, then the selection by the child of certain of these sounds to have definite meanings, then the imitation "just for fun" of sounds used by adults, then the imitation of sounds used by adults to express the meanings that adults express. Another example of development in this sense would be the changes that take place in boys' voices at the beginning of adolescence, during which period it may be unwise or almost impossible to give them vocal training. Rousseau seemed to have a very clear appreciation of this meaning of development, and Pestalozzi emphasized it in the quotations made above, but the latter was not very specific or clear in his applications.

3. The third meaning of development of a faculty is the perfecting of some special capacity through training, the acquisition of some particular kind of skill, such as facility in using the multiplication table, or skill in drawing or writing. Pestalozzi himself often used the phrase "development of faculty" in this sense; for example, in considering the best way to learn number combinations, whether by the old method of memorizing the multiplication table, or by studying groups of objects, dividing squares, etc.

4. The fourth meaning of "development of faculty" is the training of general powers, such as the intellectual, moral, and physical powers, or the perceiving, imagining, and reasoning faculties, or the faculties of form, number, and language, etc.

Pestalozzi often used

the phrase in this sense, and, unfortunately, it was the way in which his fundamental statement was used by those practical followers who imitated his method. An example occurs in the report of the committee invited by the Board of Education of Oswego, New York, to inspect the school in 1862. Praising Pestalozzi, the committee said,

art of observing should be acquired. He thought the thing perceived of less importance than the cultivation of the perceptive powers." As a consequence there was established the dreary grind of "sense training," of which more will be said in a later

chapter. Pestalozzi was also enthusiastic about the formal disciplinary value of arithmetic, which, for this reason, he considered the most important subject in the elementary curriculum.

The emphasis placed by Rousseau and Pestalozzi on the necessity of studying the appearing, maturing, and cultivating of the child's special instincts and capacities was very fruitful and beneficial. On the other hand, the emphasis placed by the Pestalozzians on the "harmonious development of all the faculties," conceived as general powers, was both beneficial and harmful beneficial in calling attention to a great many possibilities of education that the old narrow curriculum had neglected; harmful in its suggestion of the mere formal disciplining of powers with material that was not of particular social value.

Home spirit of strict but loving discipline to dominate school. One of the most characteristic ideas in Pestalozzi's doctrine was that the spirit of the well-regulated home should dominate the school. Rousseau had idealized orderly domesticity in the "New Héloïse," and the responsibilities of parental education in the "Émile"; but the emphasis placed by Pestalozzi on a reform of the school through the discipline of a "thinking love" was one of the most valuable factors in the widespread influence of Pestalozzianism. Pestalozzi was influenced to maintain this idea not only by the teachings of Rousseau but also by the natural indications of his own heart. On one occasion a peasant, the father of one of Pestalozzi's pupils, visiting the school, said, "Why, this is not a school but a family."

That is the greatest praise you can give me [answered Pestalozzi]. I have succeeded, thank God, in showing the world that there must be no gulf between the home and the school, and that the latter is only useful to education in so far as it develops the sentiments and the virtues which lend the charm and value to family life. (5: 210.)

Describing the principles on which he proceeded in treating poor children, he said: