Endeavor, first, to broaden your children's sympathies, and, by satisfying their daily needs, to bring love and kindness into such increasing contact with their impressions and activity, that these sentiments may be engrafted in their hearts. ... (5: 157.)

As we have seen on page 275, this home spirit was to include strict discipline as well as loving-kindness. Considerable liberty was allowed, as in the home, but obedience was also required. Thus, as Pestalozzi said in "Leonard and Gertrude," his own

principles in regard to education were very strict, and were founded on an accurate knowledge of the world. He maintained that love was only useful in the education of man when in conjunction with fear; for they must learn to root out thorns and thistles, which they never do of their own accord, but only under compulsion, and in consequence of training. (1: 157.)

Elementary education to regenerate lower classes. — One phase of this Pestalozzian spirit of love was enthusiasm for the education of the poor. Pestalozzi said:

I . . . desire to facilitate in a general manner the acquisition of the elements of all arts and sciences [by] the lower classes, and to open to the faculties of the poor and weak the doors to art, which are the doors to humanity, and, if I can, burn down the barricade which, in spite of the empty boasts of our vaunted general enlightenment, puts the middle classes of Europe, with respect to individual power, far behind savages, in excluding ten men out of eleven from the right of every member of society to instruction, or at any [rate] from the possibility of making use of that instruction. (6: 142.)

Experimentation to discover the correct methods of teaching. To discover the correct methods of teaching by experimentation was another characteristic idea in Pestalozzi's theory. In one of his last publications he said :

And so I end my dying strain with the words with which I began it: Prove all things and hold fast to that which is good. If anything better has ripened in you, add it in truth and love to what in truth and love I have endeavored to give you in these pages. . . . I ask nothing better than to be put on one side, and replaced by others, in all matters that others understand better than I. (3: 292.)

...

This attitude of investigation and experimentation was carried to an extreme, however, in some of the work. Thus one of Pestalozzi's assistants said:

Even in our pedagogics, he would not permit us to make use of the results of the experience of other times or other countries; we were to read nothing, but discover everything for ourselves. Hence the whole strength of the Institute was always devoted to experiments. (3: 300.) Consequently, as one of his contemporary critics (von Raumer) said:

He committed many mistakes usual with self-taught men. He wants the historical basis; things which others have discovered long before appear to him to be quite new when thought of by himself or any one of his teachers. He also torments himself to invent things which had been invented and brought to perfection long before, and might have been used by him if he had only known of them. (3: 301.)

Thus, while the craze for experimentation was beneficial as the basis of a revolution in elementary instruction, it led at the same time to many grotesque errors.

The discussion to this point has demonstrated Pestalozzi's intimate relation to Rousseau, and outlined the fundamental general ideas in Pestalozzi's work; namely, (1) education to be psychologized; (2) to consist of a development of the child's instincts and capacities; (3) to be dominated by the home spirit of strict but loving discipline; (4) to be universalized as a basis for regenerating the lower classes of society; (5) to be guided by experimental search for the best methods.

A more concrete phase of the movement will now be described by outlining Pestalozzi's life and work in relation to the social conditions in Switzerland.

Pestalozzi's career in relation to social development in Switzerland. Educational advantages enjoyed in Zurich.Henry Pestalozzi was born in 1746 in Zurich. Although his widowed mother had little means, by practicing strict economy she was able to give Pestalozzi all the benefits of the unusual educational opportunities which existed in Zurich. These

opportunities were due to the presence in the University of Zurich of some of the most famous professors and writers in German history. The best known of these Zurich professors was Johann J. Bodemer (1698–1783), who taught history and politics for fifty years, devoting especial attention to the history and institutions of Switzerland and inspiring enthusiasm for justice, liberty, and the simple life. The study of modern literatures, especially the English, was also emphasized. Thus Zurich became one of the chief centers for the revival of German literature, such leaders as Klopstock, Wieland, and Kleist associating themselves there with Bodemer. Kleist said that whereas in Berlin there were only three or four men of taste or genius, in little Zurich there were twenty or thirty.

Pestalozzi decided to become a pastor like his grandfather, with whom he spent his summers in the country. He entered the University in 1760 and immediately took high rank as a scholar, the university printing a translation which he had made of a speech by Demosthenes. After studying theology for a time he proved unsuccessful as a preacher and undertook the study of law. Speaking of the influence exerted by his professors, Pestalozzi said:

The spirit of the public teaching in my native town, though eminently scientific, was calculated to make us lose sight of the realities of life, and lead us into the land of dreams. . . . We had decided to live for nothing but independence, well-doing, sacrifice, and love of country, but we were without the practical knowledge necessary for reaching these ends. (5: 10.)

Strivings for Swiss social reform influenced by Rousseau.— Pestalozzi was moved also by the unfortunate condition of the peasants, which he learned to know on visits to his grandfather and uncle. The peasants complained of the burgesses of Zurich, who would not admit them to citizenship. One day when Pestalozzi was boasting of the liberty of the Swiss peasants, his uncle said, "Don't talk so much about

their liberty; they are no more free here than in Livonia in [Russia]." Country districts were dominated by the towns, in which affairs were controlled by a number of privileged families. In Zurich some thirteen trade guilds monopolized the industry and commerce of the place. The same conflict between the privileged classes and the masses which Rousseau represented in France existed in Switzerland, and the condemnation of the "Émile" and the "Social Contract" by the Genevan government called forth vigorous protests from the people in Geneva and the patriotic students in Zurich who worshiped Rousseau. The utterances and actions of the students became so radical that several of them, including Pestalozzi, were imprisoned by the magistrates. Discouraged by this check to their revolutionary schemes, Pestalozzi in common with other students decided to undertake another Utopian reform which had been praised by Rousseau · - to turn farmer and seek opportunities for social usefulness among the peasants.

Pestalozzi's failure as a farmer.- Accordingly he spent a year learning farming on an estate of an eminent agriculturalist, bought some farm land, married in 1769 the very intelligent and well-educated daughter of a Zurich merchant, and settled down to be a farmer. But almost from the first his lack of practical business ability was manifested, and in six years (by 1775) he had used up his own funds and those of his wife, and the undertaking was a complete failure. "The dream of my life," he said, "the hope of making my house the center of a wide sphere of benevolent activity, was gone."

Neuhof experiment (1774-1780) in industrial education of vagrant children. Meanwhile he had been educating his little boy (born 1770) with the intention of applying Rousseau's ideas. He wrote a description of his methods in his Journal. Influenced by his care for his own child, and by his reaction from the industrial enterprise in which he had failed, he decided to use his energies in training the neglected children of the surrounding country. In 1774 he began to

take in beggar children, endeavoring to teach them to maintain themselves by farming and spinning. With the help of donations this experiment continued to 1780, when it had to be abandoned because bankrupt, Pestalozzi now being as poor as the beggars who had excited his pity. For several years after 1780 Pestalozzi and his family were maintained by a servant woman, Elizabeth Naef, who sympathized with him because of his philanthropy and voluntarily worked and managed the farm so as to bring in a scanty income.

Literary activity for social and educational reform.—Still confident of the value of his theories for improving the condition of the poor by education, Pestalozzi began a period of literary activity. His first educational publication, “The Evening Hour of a Hermit," was a collection of short, pithy aphorisms about education. This secured little notice, but a few months later (1781) his "Leonard and Gertrude," a simple little story woven around the lives of the shiftless peasants among whom he lived, had an immediate and immense success and brought him international fame. The public, however, accepted "Leonard and Gertrude" as an interesting novel and largely missed its educational purpose. To emphasize the latter, Pestalozzi wrote a number of continuations or commentaries on the original, but these did not enjoy the same popularity. For one year (1782) he conducted a newspaper, the Swiss News, which contained discussions of his educational schemes, and other plans for social reform. From 1787 to 1797 he worked on his farm and published nothing, although he wrote an essay on the French Revolution which was taking place and in which he took a great interest. In 1792 he began a correspondence with Emanuel Fellenberg, who was later to carry out successfully the plan for industrial education that Pestalozzi had failed with at Neuhof. This correspondence concerned the French Revolution in its relation to Switzerland, Pestalozzi fearing the intervention of France in Swiss affairs.