to be leaders in the institute, and consequently its most characteristic virtue, the Pestalozzian spirit of love and charity, disappeared, and the efficiency greatly declined. These dissensions led to the closing of the institute in 1825. Pestalozzi's last two years were spent on his farm at Neuhof, where he died in 1827.

Spread of Pestalozzianism. Appreciation of "Leonard and Gertrude."-The popularity of Pestalozzi's institutes and the attention which they attracted have been referred to in the preceding section. But his practical experiments were not the first part of his works to attract general notice. The publication of "Leonard and Gertrude "in 1781 in itself brought international fame. The appreciation of this book by his own country is shown by the action of the Agricultural Society of Bern, which sent him a letter of congratulation with a sum of money and a gold medal. An example of the appreciation of foreigners is the letter from Count von Zinzendorf, Chancellor to the Austrian emperor. The count wrote:

Your projects and your attempts for the education of the poor, for the reclaiming of waifs and strays, and especially all that you claim for the instruction of the people, in a word, everything which ought to be the object of legal measures, will be of great importance to me, and I shall receive with great pleasure anything you write to me on the subject.

Queen Louisa of Prussia, years after the publication of Pestalozzi's novel, wrote in her diary:

I am reading " Leonard and Gertrude," and enjoy transporting myself to the Swiss village. If I were my own mistress, I should at once go to Switzerland and see Pestalozzi. Would that I could take his hand, and that he might read my gratitude in my eyes! . . . With what kindness and ardor he works for the good of his fellow man! Yes, in the name of humanity I thank him with my whole heart. (5: 257.)

In 1814, when the Russian and Austrian troops, in the course of war with Napoleon, contemplated appropriating buildings in Yverdon for a hospital, Pestalozzi's personal appeal to the Russian and Austrian emperors was sufficient to have the

order countermanded. The two emperors received him respectfully and cordially, the Czar decorating him with a cross of honor, and the Austrian emperor sending him a present.

The famous educational leaders who visited and investigated Pestalozzi's institutes will be named in the discussion of the spread of his doctrines in particular countries through their influence. Besides these professional visitors there were many with more general interests, among whom are said to have been the kings of Spain, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, Württemberg, and Saxony, Prince Esterházy of Hungary, Napoleon's famous general, Ney, and Kosciusko, the Polish patriot.

The Movement in Switzerland. We have already noticed that the Swiss national government, the local authorities at Yverdon, and private citizens contributed to the support of Pestalozzi's institutes, and that many Swiss teachers were trained in them. Pestalozzi's first and most sympathetic helper, Kruesi, was principal of the normal school at Gais from 1833 to 1844 and trained teachers in the Pestalozzian methods. Other associates performed similar services in other parts of Switzerland, but the most important and successful attempt to apply Pestalozzi's principles on a large scale was by Emanuel Fellenberg in schools at Hofwyl, which will be described in detail in the next chapter.

In some parts of Switzerland, however, there was as much suspicion and criticism of Pestalozzi's work as there was enthusiasm for it in others. This was due to the intense feelings arising from differences in political and religious beliefs. Consequently the general adoption of Pestalozzianism in Switzerland was not as rapid as in Prussia.

Pestalozzian schools a large factor in Prussian social reform. In Prussia Pestalozzi's influence was so strong that the whole system of elementary schools was called by a Prussian educational leader, in 1846, the "Prussian-Pestalozzian system." This name is a very good one because it suggests

that Pestalozzi's influence was not entirely responsible for the Prussian system, but it was a large factor in determining its work. In Chapter X we noted that Prussia, as a benevolent monarchy, was interested in the establishment of people's schools and by 1800 had made large progress in developing the first important European national school system. Consequently Pestalozzi's experiments early attracted attention in Prussia, and private individuals and government officials hastened to study them.

Pestalozzi directly inspired Herbart and Froebel.— Among the first of the private German citizens was Herbart, one of the two most influential of Pestalozzi's disciples. He visited Burgdorf in 1799, and published an account of "Pestalozzi's Idea of an ABC of Sense Perception" (1802). Another German citizen, Gruner, visited the Burgdorf Institute and then opened a Pestalozzian school in Frankfort on the Main. Here Froebel, the second of the two greatest German disciples of Pestalozzi, began his work as a teacher. So inspired was he, that he went to Yverdon in 1808 and spent two years there studying the methods. "It soon became evident to me," he said, "that 'Pestalozzi' was to be the watchword of my life."

Prussian king interested in Burgdorf, 1803.— Many other Germans, whose names do not concern us, wrote discussions of Pestalozzi's work for German periodicals. As a consequence of this general interest the Prussian king, in 1803, appointed an envoy who spent five months at Burgdorf and rendered such a favorable report to the king that the latter authorized Pestalozzi's methods to be used in the training schools for teachers, and in 1804 authorized their use in primary schools.

General Prussian social reform following the defeat at Jena. In October, 1806, Prussia, whose military efficiency had greatly declined since the days of Frederick the Great, was defeated by Napoleon in the battle of Jena. The country was completely demoralized, and by the treaty of peace

concluded in 1807 Prussia lost almost half of her territory, was required to pay an enormous indemnity which exhausted her resources, and was permitted to maintain a standing army of only 42,000.

In order to retrieve their losses and regenerate the country, Prussian statesmen became convinced that a complete social revolution which would improve the conditions of the common people was necessary. Although the general spirit of the monarchy had been enlightened, the social organization needed reform as badly as did that of France in 1789.

The agricultural classes were serfs, who were bound to the land and compelled to work a certain part of each week for the lord without remuneration. The population was divided into strict social castes. Moreover, no noble could buy citizen or peasant land; no citizen, noble or peasant land; no peasant, noble or citizen land. [Statesmen] saw that the feudal system must be abolished, the peasants freed, and the restrictions which hedged about the different classes done away with, before it would be possible to arouse public spirit to a point where a great popular uprising might expel the intruder forever. (10: 622.)

These changes were provided for in the royal decree of October 9, 1807, which was designed "to remove every obstacle that has hitherto prevented the individual from attaining such a degree of prosperity as he was capable of reaching."

One of the most important special reforms was the establishment of compulsory military service with promotion based on merit, and the consequent creation of a trained reserve force ready to take up arms at any moment. This not only exerted a strong educative influence in disciplining the people, but in a few years resulted in a fighting machine which, under Blücher, helped in the final overthrow of Napoleon. Thus the limitation which Napoleon placed on the size of the standing army of Prussia was really a good thing for the country.

A broader elementary education one phase of this reform. Included in this general reform movement was a scheme of broader elementary education for the common people. The

defeated king said, "We have lost in territory, in power, and in splendor; but what we have lost abroad we must endeavor to make up for at home, and hence my chief desire is that the very greatest attention be paid to the instruction of the people." (5: 257.)

Revival of interest in Pestalozzianism stimulated by Fichte. -The movement to introduce the Pestalozzian methods, which had begun before the Jena disaster, was now revived and greatly stimulated by the addresses of the great philosopher Fichte (1762-1814) in Berlin during the winter of 18071808. His aim was to arouse German patriotism and enthusiasm for reform. Fichte had taught in Zurich, where he became a warm personal friend of Pestalozzi and promised to exploit the latter's theories in Germany. He kept his promise in the Berlin addresses, in which he emphasized the possibilities of national regeneration to be found in education, and said:

To the course of instruction which has been invented by Henry Pestalozzi, and which is now being carried out successfully under his direction, must we look for regeneration. . . . Pestalozzi's essential aim has been to elevate the lower classes, and efface the differences between them and the educated classes; it is not only popular education that is thus realized, but national education; and Pestalozzi's doctrine has enough power to help nations and the whole human race to rise out of the miserable state in which they have been wallowing. (6: 296.)

Prussian teachers trained at Yverdon. - The Prussian government proceeded to carry out its educational reform by sending seventeen teachers, mostly theological students, to be trained at Yverdon. Each one spent three years there at the expense of the government. When sending the first two in 1808, the German minister wrote to Pestalozzi :

Being fully convinced of the great value of the method which you have invented and so successfully practiced, I hope that, by introducing it into our elementary schools, I may be enabled to bring about a complete reform of public instruction in our royal provinces, a reform from which I shall look for the most valuable results in the development of the people. (5: 258.)