Pestalozzian spirit and method adopted by Prussian teachers. While some of Pestalozzi's special methods were important elements in the influence which the reformed Prussian schools exerted in bettering social conditions, it was not these methods but his spirit which was most important. In his instructions to the Prussian students the minister said they were not sent to get the mechanical side of the method, or to develop a cleverness in teaching; but he said:

What I want you to do is to warm yourselves at the sacred fire which burns in the heart of this man so full of strength and love, whose work has remained so far below what he originally desired, below the essential idea of his life, of which the method is only a feeble product. . . . You will have reached perfection when you have clearly seen that education is an art and the most sublime and most holy art of all, and in what connection it is with the great art of the education of nations. (6: 297.)

In 1846 the centennial of Pestalozzi's birth was celebrated in Berlin. The address of a leading German educator, Diesterweg (1790-1866), on that occasion summarized the influence of Pestalozzi on the Prussian schools in the following words:

By these men and these means, men trained in the Institution at Yverdon under Pestalozzi, the study of his publications, and the applications of his methods in the model and normal schools of Prussia after 1808, was the present Prussian or rather Prussian-Pestalozzian school system established, for he is entitled to at least half the fame of the German popular schools. His experiments have secured their worldwide fame to the German schools. . . . As during Pestalozzi's life, Yverdon was a place of pilgrimage for teachers, so afterward, from Europe, America, and elsewhere, men came to observe the German and Prussian common schools. (8: 147.)

Formalized Pestalozzianism in England. There were two chief agencies leading to a popularizing of Pestalozzian methods in England. These were (1) the publication of books on object teaching, and (2) the organization of an infant-school society to use Pestalozzian methods.

Objective methods introduced by Mayos. — The Reverend Charles Mayo (1792-1846) went to Yverdon in 1819, where he spent three years. According to Pestalozzi, he "took charge of divine service, gave lessons in religion, and was the director of the English pupils in the establishment." Returning to England in 1822, he opened a private school for children of the upper classes, which was very successful. Pestalozzi's methods were used in several subjects. Object teaching was definitely organized, and the methods outlined in a manual for teachers by Mayo's sister. This manual was published in 1830, passed through twenty-six editions, and with other books of the same kind was partially responsible for the widespread adoption in England and America of formalized object teaching, which will be described in a later chapter.

Infant-school society propagated Pestalozzianism.-There was a widespread movement for the establishment of infant schools in Scotland and England between 1810 and 1830, under the influence of Robert Owen, Wilderspin, Stow, and others. The Mayos were interested in this movement as well as in Pestalozzianism, and coöperated actively with others in organizing in 1836 the Home and Colonial Infant School Society. This society established a model infant school in which Pestalozzian methods were used, and a training college for teachers. Miss Mayo was connected with the school for a long time. Herman Kruesi (1817-1902), son of Pestalozzi's first associate at Burgdorf, taught in this school for five years before coming to America. One of the training teachers, a Miss Jones, was brought to Oswego, New York, in 1860, to introduce the Pestalozzian methods. In his work on Pestalozzi, written about 1875, Kruesi said, "The influence of this school upon education in England can scarcely be overstated. It has sent out more than four thousand well-trained teachers to take their places in the elementary schools." (4: 227.)

Pestalozzianism in America. — There are three fairly distinct movements in American Pestalozzianism: (1) the importing in 1806 of one of Pestalozzi's associates, Neef, to teach in Philadelphia; (2) the general popularizing of Swiss and Prussian Pestalozzianism by means of publications between 1820 and 1860; (3) the direct importation of English Pestalozzianism into Oswego, New York, in 1860.

Pestalozzian teacher imported in 1806, Neef. - The importing of Joseph Neef (1770-1854), while very interesting, need not be treated at length because it exerted little influence. Neef, a retired Napoleonic soldier, had been one of the most popular instructors at Burgdorf. When William McClure (1763-1840), a wealthy Scotch philanthropist, desired to introduce Pestalozzianism in America, Pestalozzi recommended Neef as the best teacher to employ. McClure paid Neef to come to America and open a school in Philadelphia, where he taught for a few years about 1809. He then went West and taught in Louisville, Kentucky, and New Harmony, Indiana. He died in New Harmony.

Pestalozzian theories diffused by periodicals and official reports. Before 1860 (with the exception of Warren Colburn's arithmetic, 1821) there was no general adoption of Pestalozzian methods in American schools, but considerable information concerning their use in European schools was diffused through pedagogical periodicals and reports by investigators.

Early American educational periodicals. From about 1820, pedagogical periodicals played an important part in influencing educational opinion in the United States. The most important among these were:

1. The Academician, 1818-1820. Twenty-five numbers edited by Albert and John Picket.

2. The (first) American Journal of Education, 1826-1831. 5 vols., Edited by William Russell. Continued as

3. The American Annals of Education, 1831–1839. 9 vols. Edited at first by W. C. Woodbridge.

4. The Quarterly Register, 1829–1843. 15 vols. Related especially to religious education.

5. The Common School Journal, 1838-1848. 10 vols. Edited by Horace Mann.

6. (Barnard's) American Journal of Education, 1855-1881. 31 vols. Edited by Henry Barnard. "The most encyclopedic work on education in any tongue."

Of the periodicals published before Barnard's, the first American Journal and the American Annals are the most important from the standpoint of diffusing a knowledge of Pestalozzianism as well as of other European educational movements. William Russell, the editor of the first American Journal, taught elocution and oratory at Harvard and other colleges, and from 1849 to 1857 conducted a private Pestalozzian normal school in New Hampshire. His Journal contained translations of Pestalozzi's writings, and letters descriptive of Fellenberg's manual-labor schools at Hofwyl, Switzerland. These letters were written by William C. Woodbridge (1794-1845), who continued Russell's Journal as the American Annals. Woodbridge spent a year in Europe in 1820, and four years more beginning 1825, each time devoting much energy to the investigation of educational conditions. The Annals contained many records of his observations. He was particularly enthusiastic about the work of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg. He published textbooks in geography (1824, 1833, etc.), some of which were based on the Pestalozzian principles. He inspired Lowell Mason to introduce Pestalozzian methods of teaching music in the Boston public schools about 1836.

Henry Barnard (1811–1900), by means of his American Journal and other publications, stimulated the introduction of Pestalozzian methods. As superintendent of the schools of Connecticut (1838) he emphasized these methods in teachers' institutes, in the Connecticut Common School Journal (1838– 1842), and in special monographs. His "Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism," first published in 1858, is to-day, in its

revised form under the title "Pestalozzi and his Educational System," the best source of information in English on this subject.

Reports on European schools published in America were very influential in calling the attention of American educators to the improvements in elementary-school practice which had been instituted by Pestalozzi and his followers. Most of these reports were made by official investigators, but there was one of an unofficial character which was perhaps the most influential of all. It was the work of Professor John Griscom of New York, and was described in these words by Henry Barnard :

In 1818 and in 1819, Professor John Griscom spent a year in the most industrious and thoughtful inspection of schools, colleges, and charitable institutions of Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Holland, and published an account of the same in two volumes under the title of "A Year in Europe." No one volume of the first half of the nineteenth century had so wide an influence on the development of our educational, reformatory, and preventative measures, directly and indirectly, as this. (8: 399.)

The most important among the official reports on European schools are the following:

Translation of Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia, by Victor Cousin. This report to the French government was written in 1831, and translated into English in 1834. It was reprinted for distribution by several states, and thus became widely known.

The report of Professor Calvin E. Stowe to the Ohio legislature in 1839, on Elementary Education in Europe. The Ohio legislature distributed this report to every district in the state, and it was republished and extensively circulated by the legislatures of Pennsylvania, Michigan, Massachusetts, North Carolina, and Virginia.

The report of President Bache of the Girard College for Orphans (Philadelphia) in 1839 on Education in Europe. About two hundred pages were devoted to elementary education, with an especially enthusiastic account of the Pestalozzian methods as used in the schools of Holland.

The famous seventh report of Horace Mann to the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1843, based on his own observations in Europe.