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Important parts of all these American reports, together with some of his own researches and other material, were published by Henry Barnard in 1854 (second edition) under the title National Education in Europe.

As a result of the general attention attracted to the Pestalozzian reforms by the periodical literature and official reports described above, Pestalozzian methods were introduced into several individual schools and some of the normal schools of New England. These reforms, however, were either not sufficiently radical, or they were not sufficiently advertised to secure general attention, approval, and imitation throughout the country. It was not until 1860 that radical steps for the adoption of Pestalozzianism were taken, when what is known as the Oswego movement began.

Oswego movement; English Pestalozzianism imported, 1860. The importation of the Pestalozzian methods of the Home and Colonial School Society into the United States is the most striking development in American elementary education during the middle of the nineteenth century. The movement began at Oswego, New York, under Superintendent Edward A. Sheldon (1823-1897) in 1860, and in a few years spread over the country. Before this date English Pestalozzianism had been known, if not used, in Toronto, Canada, and it was there that Sheldon, while observing a collection of method materials exhibited in an educational museum, conceived the idea of copying the methods in Oswego.

Mr. Sheldon began his educational work in Oswego in 1848 by establishing a "ragged school" for poor and neglected children, thus early exhibiting an interest in education very similar to that of Pestalozzi himself. Mr. Sheldon became superintendent of the public schools of Oswego in 1853. As an intelligent and efficient superintendent he was interested in improving the schools, and was no doubt familiar with the method of informal object teaching described in the current pedagogical literature and used in some of the New England schools. But the completely developed system of

the English Home and Colonial School Society, which he saw in the Toronto museum, appealed to him as particularly practicable, and he immediately took the following steps to model his schools after those of this society: (1) apparatus and books were imported from London in 1860; (2) a training class for teachers was organized, and a training teacher, Miss Jones, imported from England in 1861; (3) Herman Kruesi, Jr., who had come to the United States in 1852, was engaged to teach in the training school in 1862. By these means the English methods were soon firmly established in the Oswego public schools.

Oswego methods well advertised, popularized, imitated.The Oswego methods were unusually well advertised and exploited. As a consequence they quite overshadowed the developments of the more informal Pestalozzianism, which had found a place in some of the New England schools at an earlier date. Important factors in this popularizing were the following: (1) Upon invitation of the Oswego Board of Education a committee of leading educators of the country examined the schools in February, 1862. They presented a favorable report which contained the principles of Pestalozzi and a description of the examination exercises. This report was published in Barnard's American Journal in 1863. (2) Mr. Sheldon read a paper on object teaching at the National Teachers Association in 1863. (3) In 1864 this association appointed a committee to investigate the Oswego system, which made a critical but favorable report in 1865.

A further means of spreading the Oswego methods was their adoption in normal schools. The period immediately following 1860 was characterized by the establishment of scores of state and city normal schools, particularly in the Middle West. The Oswego training school was made a state normal school in 1866, at the same time that several others were established in New York. These schools were taught largely by training teachers from Oswego. Similarly, in many

of the normal schools of the Middle West, in Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, Michigan, etc., Oswego graduates were employed, and prospective teachers were trained in the Oswego methods.

Oswego methods not universally approved. - The Oswego methods met with very severe criticism as well as wide adoption. Much of this criticism was based entirely on conservatism; but there was at least one critic whose basis was scientific, namely, Dr. H. B. Wilbur, superintendent of the New York State Asylum for Idiots. His vigorous attacks in papers before the New York and National Teachers Associations stimulated interest in the Oswego methods, however, instead of discrediting them. His criticisms were very similar to those passed on the same methods in England by Herbert Spencer in the second chapter of his work on education, published in 1861. It is interesting to note that subsequent developments in educational psychology and methods of teaching have been away from the Home and Colonial Society or Oswego methods in the direction of Dr. Wilbur's suggestions. These methods will be discussed in detail in later chapters.

Three special phases of Pestalozzian methods to be discussed. This will conclude our general discussion of the Pestalozzian movement. The fundamental principles of Pestalozzi's reforms, and their widespread adoption in Prussia, England, and the United States, have been described. There are three special aspects of Pestalozzian school practice which deserve consideration in separate chapters. The first of these is Pestalozzian industrial education for juvenile reform, which was its author's principal interest up to the Burgdorf period (1799). The second is Pestalozzian object teaching and oral instruction, which includes the beneficial influence on the methods of teaching language, elementary science, geography, and primary arithmetic. The third might be called Pestalozzian formalism, and includes pernicious developments in the form of degenerate object teaching, and the application of the principle of proceeding from the simple to the complex.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

There is a large body of easily obtainable, very satisfactory, concrete material on the Pestalozzian movement.

Concerning Pestalozzi. 1. PESTALOZZI, HENRY. Leonard and Gertrude. (D. C. Heath & Co.) See above, p. xxiii, for further statement. 2. PESTALOZZI, HENRY. How Gertrude teaches her children. (C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 1894.) The best account by Pestalozzi of his own methods, but dry and uninteresting as compared with Leonard and Gertrude.

3. HOLMAN, H. Pestalozzi, his Life and Work. (Longmans, Green, & Co., 1908.) The best book for general purposes. Well arranged from a broad standpoint. Marred by typographical errors, often in dates.

4. KRUESI, H., Jr..Pestalozzi, his Life, Work, and Influence. (American Book Company, 1875.) Like No. 3 above, but older. Contains some material on American Pestalozzianism.

5. GUIMPS, ROGER DE. Pestalozzi, his Aim and Work. (D. Appleton and Company, 1890.) More complete than Nos. 3 and 4. Best for details.

6. PINLOCHE, A. Pestalozzi, and the Modern Elementary School. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1901.) Abstract and technical.

7. QUICK, R. H. Educational Reformers. (D. Appleton and Company, 1890.) Chap. xvi. A very readable interpretative account of Pestalozzi's life and work.

8. BARNARD,

Concerning the Pestalozzian movement generally. H. Pestalozzi and his Educational System. (C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, n.d.) A mine of information concerning all aspects of the Pestalozzian movement in Europe and America. Do not confuse with Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, which was an earlier and less valuable work.

Concerning Prussian Pestalozzianism.-See above, No. 4, chap. ii; No. 5, pp. 257–264; No. 6, pp. 289–300; No. 8, pp. 145–388. See also the reports and journals referred to above in the text, pp. 297–300. Concerning English Pestalozzianism. See above, No. 3, pp. 312318; No. 4, pp. 219-227; No. 8, pp. 499–510.

Concerning American Pestalozzianism.

228-248; No. 8, pp. 389–498.

See above, No. 4, pp.

9. MONROE, W. S. The Pestalozzian Movement in the United States. (C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 1907.)

10. ROBINSON, J. H. History.

Also referred to in the chapter. of Western Europe. (Ginn and Company.)

CHAPTER XIV

PESTALOZZIAN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION FOR

JUVENILE REFORM

Main points of the chapter.

1. Since the sixteenth century the necessity of providing industrial training for juvenile delinquents has been appreciated by statesmen.

2. American colonial laws requiring such training were direct copies of antecedent English laws.

3. The Napoleonic wars increased the seriousness of the problem in continental Europe.

4. Pestalozzi showed the way to a solution by advocating the organization of industrial training in public schools and special institutions, which should (1) reproduce the spirit and organization of an ideal peasant's or artisan's home, and (2) give direct training in domestic industries, farming, and handicrafts.

5. Fellenberg maintained in Switzerland a model institution (18061844) which proved the practicability of Pestalozzi's scheme.

6. This model was quite generally imitated in European countries in the first half of the nineteenth century, in juvenile reformatories.

7. American juvenile reformatories were not generally organized on the Pestalozzian basis until the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

8. Pestalozzian industrial training (that is, direct training in industrial processes) is now competing with manual training for a place in American public schools.

One of the most important phases of Pestalozzi's influence. --The first of the three special phases of Pestalozzian methods which we shall study is the reformation of vagrant and delinquent children by means of industrial training. Pestalozzi's first interest in education as a means of social reform was along this line, and his theories as embodied in the schools of Emanuel Fellenberg and his imitators had a wide influence on practice during the nineteenth century.

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