Summary of the movement by Barnard, 1854.- The following summary of this influence appeared in Henry Barnard's "National Education in Europe," which also contained a great many details concerning the development of the movement in various European countries. (1: 487.)

Napoleonic wars increased vagrancy in European countries. The frequent wars in which the several states of Europe have been engaged, by carrying desolation into the home, field, and the workshop, have multiplied the number of orphan and penniless children beyond the ordinary causes of such visitations, and at the same time, by weakening the bonds of law and virtue, have increased the temptations to a vicious life, and thus swelled the ranks of juvenile criminality. The extreme severity, and almost uninterrupted succession of belligerent operations, growing out of the revolutionary movement of France, left at its close, in every continental state, a larger number than ever before, of poor neglected and vicious children to care for, which arrested the attention of government and benevolent individuals, and led to many interesting experiments as to the best means of relief and reformation.

Switzerland devised new means of relief and reformation. To Switzerland belongs the credit of having first applied the principles of domestic and agricultural training to the reformation of young criminals, and to the still higher purpose of preventing pauperism and crime, by incorporating these principles into the early education of orphan, pauper, and neglected children. The Orphan House of Pestalozzi at Neuhof, opened in 1775, in which he lived with his pupils as a friend, pastor, and teacher, and in which he expended all his limited means; the Rural School for indigent children established by Fellenberg in 1805, as an essential part of his great enterprise at Hofwyl, to demonstrate what could be done to elevate the people by a good education; the Agricultural Normal School of Vehrli, at Krutzlingen, to train a class of practical agriculturists to be skillful teachers; and the Reform School of Kuratli at Bächtelen, near Berne, for vicious and offending boys, - have all demonstrated the practicability of accustoming young persons, while engaged in their studies, to habits of useful manual labor, and the wisdom of subjecting all children, and especially the orphan and outcast, to the kindly restraints and humanizing influence of domestic life. These principles of home, farm, and shop training have been slowly recognized and introduced among the charitable, preventive, and reformatory agencies of other countries.

Cottage homes and family life replaced large barracks.

that

Small rural communities, arranged in families, are fast supplanting the great hospitals and asylums, where hundreds of orphans, it may be, are well fed, clothed, and lodged under salaried governors, secretaries, and keepers, but with little or nothing of that fireside education, that cultivation of the feelings, those habits of mutual help and courtesy, plantation of delightful remembrances of innocent sports and rambles in the field, or that acquisition of ready tact in all household and rural industry, which are the distinguishing features of good New England practical home culture.

Nearly all the points to be discussed in this chapter are contained in this quotation, but the discussion will serve to bring out their significance.

General appreciation of necessity of industrial training for juvenile delinquents.—The necessity and the value of providing industrial occupation and training for orphans and for neglected and delinquent children have been generally recognized. The provisions made for such training have assumed different forms corresponding to variations in fundamental principles at different times. The Pestalozzian basis was prominent during the nineteenth century. To indicate the general character of the social problem, however, earlier provisions in England and the American colonies will be cited before discussing the Pestalozzian development.

American colonial laws required training in industry. The early American colonists appreciated the importance of industrial training for children and in some cases provided for it by law. The necessity for this requirement and its nature was expressed in the Massachusetts law of 1642 as follows:

[The General Court of Massachusetts] taking into consideration the great neglect in many parents and masters in training up their children in learning and labor and other employments which may be profitable to the Commonwealth, do hereupon order and decree that in every town the chosen men appointed for managing the prudential affairs of the same . . . shall have power . . to put forth [as] apprentices the children of such as shall not be able and fit to employ and bring them up

. . . and they are to take care that such as are set to keep cattle be set to some other employment withal, as spinning up on the rock, knitting, weaving tape, etc. They are also to provide that a sufficient quantity of materials, as hemp, flax, etc., may be raised in their several towns, and tools and implements provided for working out the same. (3: 58.)

In Virginia: "in 1646 an elaborate plan for industrial education was advanced by the Assembly . . . [which] marks out the settled policy of the State in the matter of industrial training." (3: 355.) This law refers back to English precedents in these words:

Whereas sundry laws and statutes by Act of Parliament established, have with great wisdom ordained, for the better education of youth in honest and profitable trades and manufactures . . . that the justices of peace should, at their discretion, bind out children to tradesmen or husbandmen to be brought up in some good and lawful calling . . . be it therefore enacted by the authority of this Grand Assembly, according to the aforesaid laudable custom in the Kingdom of England. . . . [etc.]

The act provided that the commissioners of the several counties were to send two poor children from each county to James City to be "employed in the public flax houses under such master and mistresses as shall there be appointed in carding, knitting, and spinning." Special dormitories were to be built, and each county was to send food and other provisions for the children. In 1668 and other years acts were passed empowering county courts to make similar provisions for educating and employing poor children.

Antecedent provisions in English laws.-That the colonial laws requiring industrial training were reproductions of antecedent English laws of the same nature was definitely stated in the preamble of the Virginia law of 1646, which we quoted. It is maintained by some authorities that such legislation as this constituted the fundamental basis of all English legislation for elementary education down to the nineteenth century; in other words, that there is a very definite connection between legislation for poor relief and apprenticeship and legislation relative to elementary education.

The English social situation of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which necessitated such legislation was similar in character to the Swiss situation which confronted Pestalozzi later; namely, a very large number of unemployed, vagrant, shiftless, untrained children and adults. Many factors combined to cause the English situation, among them being the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII, which abolished some of the dominant institutions for poor relief; and second, the abolishing of some of the guilds by the chantry acts, which diminished another of the important forms of poor relief. Other economic factors were causes also, notably the consolidation of small farms for grazing purposes, and the consequent eviction of hundreds of small farmers who were thus deprived of their means of livelihood. As a consequence we find important legislation in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, which included the same elements to which we have called attention in the colonial laws.

Domestic industries the basis of Pestalozzian industrial education. The Pestalozzian industrial education was originally planned to meet industrial conditions which existed in places where factory systems had not developed; in other words, it was based on the conditions of domestic industries and handicrafts which prevailed generally down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The factory system with the attendant industrial and social revolution necessitated a change in the type of industrial work but not in the general scheme which Pestalozzi advocated.

Factories did not destroy possibilities of Pestalozzi's scheme. Factories were early introduced into Switzerland in certain select districts, and Pestalozzi himself commented on the new and peculiar social problems which they created. But many parts of Switzerland continued in the stage of home or domestic industries and handicrafts, even as they do to the present day. The same was true of the United States during the early nineteenth century. The more primitive forms of

industry continued to be practiced in some places at the same time that the factory development was dominant in others.

Included in the domestic industries and the handicrafts were farming, work with textiles, namely, spinning, weaving, and dyeing of cotton and wool, and work with wood, metal, and leather. Examples of leather and metal work were the shoemaking and nail and tack making which many New England farmers engaged in at home during the winter months. The early Pestalozzian industrial education emphasized especially farming and work with textiles. In the later development, under Fellenberg, other trades were taught. The enormous development of textile factories soon eliminated this form of labor from such schemes of education, but there remain, even at the present day, many forms of manual labor which are suited to the general purposes of the Pestalozzian industrial education.

Moreover, many intellectual and social leaders who have been impressed with the social evils that have attended factory development, have idealized the former conditions of industry and have endeavored to reproduce them on a limited scale. This endeavor is represented in the arts-and-crafts movement of the present day. Many who consider this reaction against the factory system to be Utopian, believe, however, in the educative value of industrial training along the lines of domestic activities, agriculture, and handicrafts.

Pestalozzi's writings described the degraded condition of Swiss peasantry. Two phases of Pestalozzi's own work directly related to industrial education were the publication of "Leonard and Gertrude" (1781) and his experiments at Neuhof and Stanz. Every student should spend a few hours reading "Leonard and Gertrude," to get an appreciation of the low moral standards which prevailed in the Swiss villages.

The typical village which Pestalozzi described was governed by semifeudal customs, being under the control of a nobleman who lived in a castle outside of the town. Owing to the