dishonest administration and oppression by his subordinates, the most degraded conditions had developed. The elements of viciousness in this life, as described by Pestalozzi, included all forms of public and private dishonesty, graft and oppression, intrigue and perjury, cheating and lying, gambling, drunkenness, hypocrisy in religious matters, superstition, including belief in witchcraft and ghosts,—domestic disorder, idleness, laziness, general shiftlessness, and filthiness.

In contrast with all these, Pestalozzi presented examples of possible social reforms which would result in a fair, honest, and efficient management of the public affairs, in real piety and charity, domestic peace, cleanliness and order, appreciation of responsibility, industry, economy and general thrift, and more intelligent methods of labor.

Condition of neglected and vagrant children. — Other striking examples of the prevailing social conditions are contained in Pestalozzi's descriptions of the individual children in his establishments at Neuhof and Stanz. The following are quoted from his list of children at Stanz.

Boys

1. Jacob Baggenstoss, fifteen, of Stanzstad; father dead, mother living; good health, little capacity; can do nothing else but spin cotton; accustomed to begging.

2. Francis Joseph Businger, fourteen, of Stanz; father living, mother dead; good health, good capacity, and good manners; does not know his ABC; can spin cotton; very poor.

Girls

1. Anna Josephine Armstad, fifteen, of Stanz; father dead, mother living; healthy, fair capacity, is beginning to read, and can spin; extremely poor.

2. Clara Waser, twelve, of Stanzstad; father living, mother dead; healthy, fair capacity, fond of study, does not know her ABC; can spin; accustomed to begging. (7: 136.)

These examples and others show that many of the children had not even profited by the meager instruction offered in the village schools. When we recall that this instruction consisted

in a bare memorizing of the catechism and the acquirement of a stumbling facility in reading, we see how hopelessly inadequate it was to cope with the social conditions that Pestalozzi described.

School to reproduce conditions of ideal home. - Pestalozzi's plan for social reform through training in domestic industries was described in "Leonard and Gertrude." The central idea was that the school should reproduce the typical conditions of a well-ordered peasant's or artisan's home. This idea is expressed in the following quotations :

The school ought really to stand in the closest connection with the life of the home, instead of, as now, in strong contradiction to it. . . . The school ought to be brought into harmony with the developing influence of domestic life. . . . All verbal instruction, in so far as it aims at true human wisdom and at the highest goal of this wisdom, true religion, ought to be subordinated to a constant training in practical domestic labor.

Domestic labor in Gertrude's home. The home of Gertrude, which Pestalozzi described, was his ideal. In addition to receiving careful religious and moral training, the children spent a large part of the time spinning under the direction of their mother. The following quotation presents the picture seen when Gertrude, the mason's wife, brings home some children of an unfortunate neighbor, Rudy:

The mason's children were all at their spinning wheels and although they greeted their guests joyfully, they did not stop working for a moment. Hurry and get through and then you can play with your little friends till six o'clock," said Gertrude. Rudy's children stood in open-mouthed wonder at the beautiful work and the cheerful aspect of the room. "Can you spin?" she asked. "No," they answered. "Then you must learn, my dears. My children would n't sell their knowledge of it at any price, and are happy enough on Saturday, when they get their few kreutzers. The year is long, my dears, and if we earn something every week, at the end of the year there is a lot of money, without our knowing how we came by it."

Supplemented by intellectual and religious instruction.— This domestic labor constituted the central activity of the

home, but it was supplemented by intellectual training, much of which was carried on while the children were doing the manual work. The following quotation describes how this was done :

The children all helped wash the dishes, and then seated themselves at their customary places before their work. . . . First the children sang their morning hymns, and then Gertrude read a chapter of the Bible aloud, which they repeated after her, while they were spinning, rehearsing the most instructive passages until they knew them by heart.

The instruction she [Gertrude] gave them in the rudiments of arithmetic was intimately connected with the realities of life. . . . She made them count their threads while spinning, and the number of turns on the reel when they wound the yarn into skeins.

Instruction in spinning organized in the ideal village school. Pestalozzi believed it possible to organize the village school in imitation of Gertrude's home, as indicated in the following quotation :

The lieutenant began his school, and Gertrude helped him in the arrangement of it. They examined the children with regard to their previous studies. Besides reading, all were to learn writing and arithmetic, which previously had only been taught to the more wealthy in private lessons. A good, capable woman who came to take charge of the sewing, spinning, etc., proved a most valuable and conscientious helper in the work. Whenever a child's hand or wheel stopped she would step up and restore things to their former condition. If the children's hair was in disorder she would braid it while they studied and worked . . . and she showed them how to fasten their shoes and stockings properly, besides many other things they did not understand. (8: 154.)

Educative labor to be taught in reformatories. Finally, Pestalozzi indicated his belief that such training should be provided not only in the ordinary schools but also in orphan asylums and houses of correction, where the inmates should be given definite education in manual trades to improve their economic and moral status.

Pestalozzi taught farming and textile work at Neuhof. The plan which Pestalozzi described in "Leonard and Gertrude" (1781) he had tried to put into practice on his farm at Neuhof from 1774 to 1780. When he proposed this experiment, although he had just failed as a farmer, several philanthropists provided the necessary funds.

Most of the children that Pestalozzi took in were vagrants and beggars. Many of them were vicious and improved little in the short time spent under his care. Others, however, were honest and capable and needed only the opportunity which he offered to develop into efficient persons. At one time he had thirty-seven children, at another fifty, and later eighty. Describing the management of the institution, he said:

I get very valuable help from Miss M. of Strassberg, who is both highly gifted and of untiring activity. I have, besides, a master to teach weaving, and two skilled weavers; a mistress to teach spinning, and two good spinners; a man who winds for the weavers and teaches reading at the same time; and two men and two women who are almost always employed on the land. (7: 66.)

Pestalozzi had no administrative ability, and the management of such an enterprise, calling for unusual skill, was beyond his powers. Consequently the experiment was abandoned. In spite of its failure it had served a valuable purpose in demonstrating the lines along which industrial education might develop. It remained for Emanuel Fellenberg (1771-1844) to organize a successful institution on these same lines.

Emanuel Fellenberg's Pestalozzian institutions. Early acquaintance with Pestalozzi. Pestalozzi carried on an intimate correspondence with Emanuel Fellenberg in 1792 concerning the French Revolution, and in 1804, for a few months, tried to conduct his school under the business management of Fellenberg at Münchenbuchsee.

Fellenberg active in Swiss social reform.- Fellenberg's father, a high government official in Switzerland, was interested in Pestalozzi's experiments, and thus Emanuel, while

quite young, became acquainted with Pestalozzi. His mother early directed his attention to the care of the poor and unfortunate. He pursued political and social studies in German universities; visited Paris in 1795 to ascertain the French intentions with regard to Switzerland; tried in vain to arouse his country to appreciate its danger; led Swiss troops against the French when they invaded Switzerland in 1798, but was defeated and had to flee the country. Later he was permitted to return. He occupied important administrative offices for a while, but he soon became disgusted with the general dishonesty and lack of interest in public affairs and turned his attention to education. He became convinced that legislation in favor of improvements in education was too slow a process, and decided to use his ample fortune in establishing "a model institution in which it should be proved what education could accomplish for humanity." For this purpose he purchased a large country estate at Hofwyl, near Bern. Here he conducted, from 1806 to 1844, educational experiments along Pestalozzian lines, which were as successful from an administrative and economic standpoint as Pestalozzi's were unsuccessful. (4.)

Included industrial training of rich as well as poor. - Fellenberg's aim was to establish an institution in which the poor would be trained to work, and the rich trained to appreciate the work of the poor and to be efficient in directing it for the public good. He believed that agriculture, as the principal occupation of the people, was best adapted to produce the harmonious physical and intellectual development at which he aimed. His aim was broader than Pestalozzi's had been at Neuhof, inasmuch as it included not only the industrial education of the poor but also the training of teachers for rural schools and the training of the rich.

Many successful phases of the Hofwyl institution. - The Hofwyl institution was organized gradually, each element in the organization being well established before another was