Reproduced by permission of the editor from Monroe's "Cyclopædia of Education."

(The Macmillan Company)

added. By 1829, according to William Woodbridge's contemporary description, the institution included the following elements: (1) a farm of about six hundred acres; (2) workshops for manufacturing agricultural implements and clothing for the inhabitants; (3) a lithographing establishment where music and other things were printed; (4) a literary institution for the education of the wealthy and higher classes; (5) an intermediate or practical institution which trained for handicrafts and middle-class occupations; (6) an agricultural institution for the education of the poor to be farm laborers, and for the training of rural-school teachers.

The agricultural institution most significant for elementary education. It was this sixth phase of the work that was generally copied in Switzerland and other European countries. Just as Pestalozzi had intended, agriculture was to be used as a means of moral and practical education for the poor. It also served to defray the expenses of the education of the poor students. In addition to training in agriculture, the institution provided training for cart makers, carpenters, joiners, blacksmiths, locksmiths, shoemakers, tailors, etc. Fellenberg's practice of giving prospective rural-school teachers a thorough training in scientific agriculture was copied in many of the normal schools of Switzerland. The practice of training poor children in agriculture and other occupations under the conditions of family life was soon copied in most countries except the United States.

General adoption of Fellenberg's plan. Farm schools established in all cantons of Switzerland. Henry Barnard wrote

in his "National Education in Europe" (1854):

In each of the cantons of Switzerland, in 1852, there was at least one rural or farm school conducted on the basis of a well regulated family. The school is open both to girls and boys. . . . The number of inmates averages from twenty to forty, and when the entire family exceed twenty, it is subdivided into lesser ones of twelve or more, who are placed under an assistant "father." The school instruction occupies three hours in

summer and four in winter; the remainder of the day being devoted to work in the field or garden, or at certain seasons of the year and for a class of pupils, in some indoor trade or craft. (1: 488.)

Redemption industrial plan imitated in other European countries. The above-described scheme was imitated in many parts of Europe. In Germany one of the most interesting examples was the Redemption Institute, or Rauhe Haus, established in 1833 near Hamburg. This was a private charity admitting boys and girls of the worst type. Ordinarily such children would have been identified with the criminal class and would have developed as criminals.

At the beginning of 1844, of 81 children who had left the establishment, 33 were apprenticed to artisans or mechanics, 7 entered at service as farm-laborers or domestics, 7 had become day laborers, II (girls) had become servants, 9 had become sailors, 3 entered the army, I prepared himself for the university, 5 continued at school; the occupation of 3 is unknown, and 2 children belonging to a family of vagrants could not be kept at any regular occupation. (1: 520.)

Only six or seven of these had misbehaved after leaving the school.

In England the famous Battersea Training Establishment for teachers was founded in 1839 in definite imitation of the Swiss normal schools. A noted reform school and farm for juvenile criminals was established at Red Hill in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society. On a farm of one hundred forty acres, without bars or walls or gates, criminal children, including some of the most vicious, were trained and reformed according to the Pestalozzian-Fellenberg plan.

Fellenberg manual-labor scheme popularized in the United States by Woodbridge, 1830.-Among the chief factors in popularizing the Fellenberg idea in the United States were the letters of William C. Woodbridge describing the Hofwyl institution, which started in the American Journal of Education and ran for almost two years (1831-1832) in the early volumes of its successor, the American Annals of Education.

Henry Barnard said that of more than one hundred reports concerning Fellenberg's establishment, "the most particular account and that in which the spirit of the institutions was considered by their founder to be best exhibited" was the one by Mr. Woodbridge.

American manual-labor schools mostly for higher education. In the United States the original Pestalozzian element (moral redemption through manual labor) in the Fellenberg scheme was not copied until much later than in most European countries. On the other hand, Fellenberg's idea was carried out in manual-labor institutions, organized to provide secondary or higher education along literary lines. These were very common during the second quarter of the nineteenth century. The two ideas most prominent in this development were (1) the necessity of physical exercise; and (2) the possibility of self-support for poor students. Theological seminaries, colleges, and also many less important schools were established upon these principles from Maine to Tennessee. The movement began actively about 1825 and continued for about a quarter of a century. In general, it did not realize the hopes of its advocates, although some phases of it persist to-day in the farm work for self-support that students carry on in some of the agricultural colleges. Another phase of the development in the United States which is more directly related to elementary education remains to be discussed.

Industrial work in American reformatories. Early reformatories organized on prison principles.—We noted in an earlier paragraph that industrial training in reform schools on the family plan was copied from Switzerland in several European countries but was adopted very tardily in the United States.

In 1824 the House of Refuge for delinquent boys was established in New York City, and similar institutions were organized in Philadelphia in 1826 and in Boston in 1827.

Only a few others were established before 1850, but between 1850 and 1860 over a dozen were organized. These institutions were the results of the movement which had started in England in the latter part of the eighteenth century, to provide separate institutions for juvenile delinquents instead of confining them with adult criminals, as was the general practice. These new institutions differed from those established on the Pestalozzian plan in two fundamental respects: (1) they were not homes, but were simply separate prisons for children; (2) although they provided industrial work, it was not "educative labor," but prison-contract labor. The principal factor in this labor was the amount of money that the institution could make from it.

American reformatories little affected by Pestalozzian principles before 1873.- In 1873 Miss Mary Carpenter, one of the leaders in juvenile reform work in England, visited America and criticized the prison-like character of the reform schools. This criticism was one of the influences which were operative in stimulating the movement to reorganize these institutions on the Pestalozzian basis. I have found no general account of this development, but the following items are fair examples of it.

Pestalozzian basis of organization common in the eighties; cottage plan. The following statement is taken from the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1882-1883:

The reform school of the present is a decided improvement on those which were first established sixty years ago. The changes effected have been stated as follows in a pamphlet issued by the Colorado State Industrial School:

"In the earlier history of these schools, all inmates were classed together. For their safe-keeping it was thought necessary to fasten them in cells at night; strong iron bars guarded the windows, etc. . . . In the modern reformatory neither high walls, cells, bolts or bars are found. Nothing in the surroundings distinguishes them from first-class public schools.