and idealization of Nature and the Hellenic type of man as the full and unrestricted realization of the idea of human kind as conceived by the creative spirit of Nature. Accordingly it was thought to be the object of education to form the young on the Greek model . . . to imbue their minds with the Hellenic sentiment, with courage and energy to search after truth, with manly will-power to uphold themselves against hostile forces without and within, with an enthusiastic love for all that is beautiful and perfect. . . . [This] second Renaissance saw the golden age in the glorious days of Athenian art and literature. . . . The high tide of Neo-Humanism reached its culmination about the end of the eighteenth century. Goethe and Schiller, having come together on the ground of Neo-Humanism, dominated German literature and imbued it with the belief that the Hellenic world was the highest manifestation of humanity. (2: 161.)

New humanism affected elementary education indirectly. - In the history of secondary and higher education a much longer discussion of new humanism would be necessary because these forms of education in Germany were so profoundly affected by it. Elementary education, however, was affected only indirectly. This influence was exerted by Herbart's followers. Herbart himself had little interest in elementary education, and most of his discussions concern the work of secondary schools. His followers, on the other hand, have been most interested in elementary education. Herbart elaborated the ideals of new humanism in their application to education generally, but especially to secondary education. His followers have made application of the same principles to elementary education.

Herbart enjoyed new humanistic atmosphere at Jena, 17941797. In Herbart's life as a student there were three primary interests — philosophy, mathematics, and Greek. He early gave evidence of philosophical genius. The mathematical interest manifested itself in later life in the development of the "ABC of Sense Perception " and a unique system of psychology involving the mathematical measurement of ideas. But it was his interest in Greek literature which was the most important factor in his improvement of Pestalozzian pedagogy.

At the University of Jena, where Herbart was a student (1794-1797), he was strongly influenced by the new humanistic enthusiasm for Greek. Near Jena was Weimar, the literary capital of Germany, the home of Goethe and Schiller, the two great exponents of Greek culture. Under the influence of Schiller philosophy and poetry were developed together. Consequently, at Jena, Herbart participated in an enthusiastic study of Greek philosophy and literature, especially the Odyssey. Among other things he wrote an essay on certain musical aspects of Homer's poems.

Herbart made the Odyssey the basis of moral instruction.— Herbart's enthusiasm for the Odyssey is clearly shown in a single sentence in "The Science of Education." He said, “I am indebted to the Odyssey for one of the happiest experiences of my life, and in a great degree for my love of education." (7: 90.) When Herbart left Jena to become the instructor of the three boys in Switzerland, he made the Odyssey the basis of instruction in Greek instead of the textbooks ordinarily used. One of his chief reasons for using the Odyssey was for the moral development that would result. Later he discussed this reason at length in his works on education. Speaking of the development of sympathy as one of the fundamental factors in moral development, by means of literature and history, he said:

The intent to teach spoils children's books at once; it is forgotten that every one, the child included, selects what suits him from what he reads, and judges the writing as well as the writer after his own fashion. Show the bad to children plainly, but not as an object of desire, and they will recognize that it is bad. Interrupt a narrative with moral precepts and they will find you a wearisome narrator. Relate only what is good, and they will feel it monotonous, and the mere charm of variety will make the bad welcome. Remember your own feelings on seeing a purely moral play. But give to them an interesting story, rich in incidents, relationships, characters, strictly in accordance with the psychological truth, and not beyond the feelings and ideas of children; make no effort to depict the worst or the best, only let a faint, half-unconscious moral tact secure

that the interest of the action tends away from the bad towards the good, the just, the right; then you will see how the child's attention is fixed upon it, how it seeks to discover the truth and thinks over all sides of the matter, how the many-sided material calls forth a many-sided judgment, how the charm of change ends in preference for the best, so that the boy who perhaps feels himself a step or two higher in moral judgment than the hero or the author, will cling to his view with inner approbation, and so guard himself from a coarseness he already feels beneath him. The story must have one more characteristic, if its effect is to be lasting and emphatic; it must carry on its face the strongest and cleanest stamp of human greatness. . . . I know of only one place where such a written story may be found — the classical age of childhood among the Greeks, and I consider the Odyssey ranks in the first place. (7: 89.)

An illuminated spot for the whole of posterity is formed by the classical representations of an ideal boyhood in the Homeric poems. If we are not afraid to allow the noblest among languages [Greek] to take precedence, in our instruction, of the accepted learned language [Latin] we shall, on the one hand, escape numberless perversions and distortions in everything touching the right understanding of literature and history of mankind, of opinions and of arts; and we shall, on the other, be made sure of presenting to the child's interest, events and characters which he can perfectly grasp, and from which he can go on to endlessly varied self-reflections on human beings and society, and the dependence of both on a higher power. (7: 73.)

The earliest cultivation of the child's feelings will have been a failure, if, after taking his full pleasure in the characters, the moral impression left from these old stories is doubtful.

Periods which no master has described, whose spirit no poet breathes, are of little value to education. . . . (7: 73-74.)

These quotations from Herbart's own writings bring out clearly the following points: (1) In general he is merely expressing the principles of the new humanistic movement. (2) Literary and historical materials are considered especially valuable as sources of moral ideas and sentiments. (3) Satisfactory stories for moral instruction (a) should not be especially constructed moral tales, (b) should be adapted to the child's understanding, (c) should be interesting to the child. (4) Of all literature, the Odyssey is the best starting point for such instruction.

Systematic discussion of Herbart's theory. The previous discussion was intended to demonstrate Herbart's historical position, namely, his connection with Pestalozzi and especially his participation in the new humanistic movement. We will now take up a more systematic consideration of his educational doctrine.

Aim of education. Like Locke and Pestalozzi, Herbart emphasized moral training.-"The term 'virtue' expresses the whole purpose of education," according to Herbart. Thus he emphasized the same function of education as did Pestalozzi in his plans for individual reform and social regeneration through education. It is the same purpose emphasized by Locke in theory, by the English secondary schools in practice, and by scores of other writers and systems. As Pestalozzi had planned, so with Herbart moral training was not to take the place of religious instruction, nor was religious instruction in itself sufficient, but the two were to work together to develop the right insight, sentiments, and habits.

Development of many-sided interest the aim of instruction. — Like Rousseau and Pestalozzi, Herbart emphasized the idea of many-sided development. Rousseau had phrased this idea in terms of the maturing and cultivating of the child's instincts and capacities, to prepare him for a broad manhood and general efficiency (see p. 204). Pestalozzi and his followers phrased the idea in terms of "the harmonious development of all the powers" (see p. 276). Herbart criticized this formulation and substituted one which more nearly expresses the ideal of the Greek liberal education. His formulation of the idea of many-sided development is in terms of interests as the aim of instruction, and is admirably stated in the following paragraph from his "Outlines of Educational Doctrine":

The ultimate purpose of instruction is contained in the notion, virtue. But in order to realize the final aim, another and nearer one must be set up. We may term it many-sidedness of interest. The word "interest"

stands in general for that kind of mental activity which it is the business of instruction to incite. Mere information does not suffice; for this we think of as a supply or store of facts, which a person might possess or lack, and still remain the same being. But he who lays hold of his information and reaches out for more takes an interest in it. Since, however, this mental activity is varied, we need to add the further determination supplied by the term "many-sidedness." (4: §62.)

Herbart introduced interest as a permanent product. The first point to notice in connection with this quotation is that in Herbart's own account the idea of interest is introduced as an end or aim, that is, as a permanent result of education. This is clearly suggested by the term "abiding" many-sidedness of interest which he uses in other places. The ordinary discussions in recent years, of the place of interest in education, have been concerned for the most part with interest as a means of getting school work done; the emphasis has been on the present interest of the child instead of on the abiding interests which it is the business of education to establish. Herbart considered interest as a temporary means subordinate to the larger question of interests as permanent products of education.

Interest an active reaching out. The quotation given above emphasized the essentially active nature of interest as conceived by Herbart (in his pedagogy, not in his metaphysics). A person is interested in an experience when he "lays hold of it and reaches out for more." Interest, then, is measured by the energy with which a person actively goes after an experience, not merely by his passive enjoyment. This is important in relation to many criticisms of the interest theory of education, criticisms which conceive of interest purely in terms of having the children passively amused and stimulated. The active element in interest is further emphasized by Herbart in the following quotation :

Interest means self-activity. The demand for many-sided interest is, therefore, a demand for many-sided self-activity. But not all self-activity, only the right degree of the right kind, is desirable; else lively children