On the other hand, Herbart believed that a subject should be made attractive if possible, and so he continued:

Harmful and reprehensible as habitual playing with a subject is when it usurps the place of serious and thorough instruction, in cases where a task is not difficult, but seems so to the pupil, it often becomes necessary to start him by a dexterous, cheerful, almost playlike presentation of that which he is to imitate. Superfluous prolixity and clumsiness, through the ennui alone which they produce, cause failure in the easiest things. (4: $99.)

Apperception. Instruction to be adapted to child's experience. Herbart said that Pestalozzi's great contribution to education was to proceed to give children experiences instead of assuming that they already had them. Herbart elaborated this relating of instruction to the child's experience, and since his time the principle of apperception has gained general recognition. This principle is based on the psychological fact that the way any one interprets or responds to a given situation will depend on two factors, namely, his past experience and his present frame of mind. In books on psychology this fact is commonly illustrated by the different ideas that would be aroused in the minds of different people by a single word; for example, by the word "bay," spoken to a horse dealer, a boy studying geography, a carpenter, an owner of hounds, etc. These persons would all interpret the word differently, owing to differences in previous experiences. On the other hand, we could assure very similar interpretations of or responses to the word "bay" from all these persons if we put them in a common frame of mind by saying, " Pupils in geography must be able to define lake, river, bay," etc.

In teaching, these facts are particularly important because most instruction is given in words, and the important point is to make sure that the pupils get the right interpretation. Rousseau and Pestalozzi discussed this point very definitely; but under the name of "apperception" the principle is generally associated with Herbart's name.

Herbart's statement of Pestalozzian phase of appercep tion.- The Pestalozzian phase of apperception, that is, providing a fund of real experiences as a basis for understanding verbal instruction, was expressed by Herbart as follows:

Instruction is to supplement that which has been gained already by experience and by intercourse with others; these foundations must exist when instruction begins. If they are wanting they must be firmly established first. Any deficiency here means a loss to instruction, because the pupils lack the thoughts which they need in order to interpret the words of the teacher.

Ordinarily because their eyes are fixed so closely on the facts to be learned, teachers concern themselves little with the ideas already possessed by the pupils.

In the most favorable case, if instruction is thorough, that is, scientific, a foundation of elementary knowledge is gradually laid sufficiently solid for later years to build on; in other words, out of the elementary knowledge an apperceiving mass is created in the mind of the pupil which will aid him in his future studies. (4: §§ 78-79.)

Herbart's description of the process of apperception. — Herbart described the process by which new experiences are interpreted in terms of former experiences as follows:

Apperception, or assimilation, takes place through the reproduction of previously acquired ideas and their union with the new element, the most energetic apperception, although not necessarily the best, being effected by ideas arising spontaneously. . . . Now this apperceiving activity must be exercised constantly in all instruction. For instruction is given in words only; the ideas constituting their meaning must be supplied by the hearer. But words are not meant to be understood merely; they are intended to elicit interest. And this requires a higher grade and greater facility of apperception. (4: §§ 73, 77.)

Emphasized putting children in proper frame of mind. — Herbart also emphasized the other phase of apperception, namely, that the present interpretation of new experiences (usually words in instruction) depends not only on adequate past experience, but also on the present frame of mind of the pupil. The necessity of arousing the correct system of ideas in the child's mind was stated by him in these words:

A rule of vital importance is that, before setting his pupils at work, the teacher should take them into the field of ideas wherein their work is to be done. He can accomplish this at the beginning of a recitation hour by means of a brief outline view of the ground to be covered in the lesson or lecture. (4: §76, note.)

The necessity of establishing the correct emotional attitude was suggested in the following statement:

In general, it will always remain a matter of uncertainty whether or how instruction will be received and mentally elaborated. To diminish this uncertainty, if for no other reason, there is need of a constant endeavor to put the pupil in a frame of mind suitable for instruction. (4: §40.)

Forced attention and purposive memorizing may be necessary. Again it is necessary, in order to show how practical Herbart was, to indicate certain limitations which he placed on his own theories. Some of Herbart's extreme disciples have carried the doctrines of interest and apperception to extremes which he did not sanction. Thus he said :

The fact must not be overlooked, that even the best method cannot secure an adequate degree of apperceiving attention from every pupil; recourse must accordingly be had to the voluntary attention, that is, to the pupil's resolution. But for the necessary measures the teacher must depend, not merely on rewards and punishments, but chiefly on habit and custom. (4: §80.)

By habit and custom Herbart meant that pupils should be trained to feel that the school is the place for regular application to study; that even if the material is not readily understood and requires some "grinding," it must be attacked and mastered. Furthermore, some so-called followers of Herbart have thought that the ends of instruction were secured when interest and apperception were established, and have had no place for purposive memorizing. The following quotation shows how different this is from Herbart's own position:

The voluntary attention is most frequently demanded for memorizing, for which, apart from all else, the presence of interest is not always a favorable condition. . . . Like observation, intentional memorizing presupposes a certain amount of self-control. (4: §81.)

...

Herbart meant that an active interest in a subject tends to draw a person on to new phases, and thus interferes with the purposive memorizing of that which is already understood.

Herbart's practical appreciation of the necessity of intentional memorizing is further shown by the long discussion which he gives concerning it, in which he makes the following points:

I. Committing to memory is very necessary; use is made of it in every department of knowledge."

2. Memorizing should not be attempted until the material is understood.

3. Not too much should be assigned at one time.

4. Avoid memorizing incorrect connections.

5. Avoid the suggestion of irksomeness.

6. Not everything learned by heart need be retained permanently. "In many cases it is sufficient for later years if the pupil knows how to look for literary helps, and how to make use of them."

7. Practice is the most efficient method for permanent memorizing: "practice consisting in the constant application of that which is to be retained to that which actually interests pupils." (4: §§ 81-82.)

General method. Pestalozzians formulated method of analytic induction. We noted in the treatment of the Pestalozzians that they established certain very influential principles of method; for example, that all instruction should be based on sense perception; that children should have clear ideas from such experience and be given training in expressing them orally; that in teaching any subject you should proceed from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from the empirical to the rational.

An example of the application of these Pestalozzian methods. we found in Warren Colburn's "First Lessons in Arithmetic," which was published in 1821. In the preface Colburn elaborated what he called the application of the principles of "analytic induction" to the teaching of arithmetic. This consisted in beginning with an analytical conversation with the children concerning their experiences; then getting a number of examples clearly in mind; then formulating the general

process involved; and finally giving the children practice in applying the general rule or principle reached in this way. Thus we see that Pestalozzi and some of the Pestalozzians had succeeded in formulating very influential general principles of method. It is sometimes asserted that Pestalozzi stopped with sense perceptions and that Herbart showed how these should be elaborated into ideas; that Herbart thus invented apperception. This is a rather absurd belittling of Pestalozzi's achievements, since rational thinking and having clear ideas were two points that he emphasized most. Thus Pestalozzi said:

When a child's sense impressions have resulted in clear and settled ideas, and when he can express these ideas in speech, he feels the need of examining, separating, and comparing them; this is a pleasure to which life itself invites him, and in which he finds the surest aid for the development of his judgment and power of thinking. (11: 379.)

To be sure, as we showed in the chapter on Pestalozzian formalism, Pestalozzian practice was not always consistent with the above principles, but often consisted in the bare memorizing of facts rather than in their methodical treatment.

Herbart said facts need methodical treatment. — Herbart was particularly strong in his criticism of the learning of isolated facts because, as such, they would have little moral influence. He said:

Instruction in the sense of mere information-giving contains no guarantee whatever that it will materially counteract faults and influence existing groups of ideas that are independent of the imparted information. But it is these ideas that education must reach; for the kind and extent of assistance that instruction may render to conduct depend upon the hold it has upon them.

Facts at least must serve as the material for methodical treatment, otherwise they do not enlarge even the scope of mental activity. They rise in value when they become instinct with life and acquire mobility so as to enrich the imagination. But their ethical effect always remains questionable so long as they do not help to correct or modify the ethical judgment, or desire and action, or both. (4: $35.)