linked with nature studies, he opposed a very elaborate inter relating of subjects. Ziller, on the other hand, went to the extreme of maintaining that all the subjects of the elementary school should center in a series of central topics. As indicated in the quotation on page 407, this central series should be historical and literary; for example, in the second grade "Robinson Crusoe" would be the point of departure for reading, writing, arithmetic, and moral instruction. In the seventh grade, where the Reformation is the historical center with which everything else is connected, the course of study includes the invention of printing and gunpowder; the literature of the Reformation, with Luther's Bible; the astronomical geography of the period - Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and others; and nature study connected with the work of the same scientists. The songs taught are related to the period of the Reformation; the arithmetic is based on the mathematical geography and the nature study, even on the history by involving computations concerning an army corps in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648); and drawing is based on the industrial art which prevailed in the time of the Reformation.

Correlation in America. Moderate interrelating of subjects common. In America correlation was vigorously discussed during the nineties and is now an important factor in the organization of courses of study in many places. Perhaps the most important influence in bringing this about was the Report of the Committee of Fifteen, of the National Educational Association, on elementary education, published in 1895. For the most part, correlation in America takes the form of a moderate interrelating of subjects such as Herbart proposed. The most helpful of such correlations that are becoming common are those (1) between geography and history, (2) between arithmetic and geography (including a study of industries), (3) between arithmetic and constructive work (including household arts).

Incidental teaching of formal subjects in lower grades. Concentration around a few central topics has not been generally adopted in America except in the lower grades. Here it is not uncommon to center nearly all the work in a study of fairy stories, myths, and legends, and especially of "Robinson Crusoe." Instead of calling this concentration, however, it is ordinarily spoken of as teaching the formal subjects (reading, writing, and arithmetic) incidentally. There is considerable debate concerning the value of this practice.

Colonel Parker concentrated around scientific subjects, 1894. The best known attempt at thorough concentration in America was set forth in Colonel F. W. Parker's "Talks on Pedagogics, an Outline of the Theory of Concentration" (1894). This was not a mere theoretical discussion, but represented what had been worked out in practice to a considerable degree in the normal school of Cook County, Illinois, of which Colonel Parker was principal. A modification of this plan was continued in practice to a certain extent in the elementary school of The University of Chicago as late as 1909. Colonel Parker's enthusiasm for his plan was expressed in his preface as follows:

The initial steps in this work have been taken, and enough has been done to prove that the direction is right. The doctrine of concentration in itself is a science of education that will absorb the attention of thoughtful teachers for centuries; it contains an ideal that is infinite in its possibilities.

Among the sources of inspiration which Colonel Parker acknowledged were the work of Herbart and his followers, and the Froebelian doctrine of unity. Parker's scheme differed from that of Ziller in that it made the sciences, especially geography, the central subjects of study. These subjects were given a large place in the programs of the lowest grades, which was, and still is, a very uncommon practice. The formal subjects were to be taught “incidentally "to these content subjects.

Culture-epochs theory to determine sequence of subject matter. One of the theories which Ziller and his followers have championed most vigorously is that the material in any study, but particularly in the culture studies, should be arranged in the order in which it has been developed historically. This order is supposed to correspond to the order in which children develop capacities for understanding and appreciating the subject matter. A clear example of this appears in Ziller's outline for the study of Biblical material, beginning with Moses and coming on down through the life of Christ and Paul to Luther and the catechism. This is called the cultureepochs theory, because the development of civilization or culture with which the children are to be made familiar may be divided roughly into epochs having characteristic differences. The epochs chosen vary with the point of view taken in making the division. One of the most common divisions is according to industrial stages; namely, (1) the hunting and fishing stage; (2) the nomadic, grazing, or domestic-animal stage; (3) the agricultural stage; (4) the stage of domestic labor, handicrafts, and town economy; (5) the factory-system stage, or the period of national economy. Similar epochs are supposed to appear in similar order in the development of the child. This is a special application of the biological theory of recapitulation; namely, that the individual in his physical development from the embryo to the adult recapitulates or passes through the same stages of development as occurred in the evolution of the species.

Spencer and Hall advocates of recapitulation. — Apart from the Herbartians, the most prominent champions of this theory among English writers are Herbert Spencer and G. Stanley Hall (1846). Thus Spencer says in his chapter on Intellectual Education (c. 1860): "The education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement with the education of mankind as considered historically; or, in other words, the genesis of knowledge in the individual must

follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge in the race." The most notable expressions of the doctrine from G. Stanley Hall are found in the publications of his students. One of these, entitled "Hydro-Psychoses " (mental states related to water), is devoted to showing how human beings assume certain characteristic attitudes toward water because their ancestors were fishes. Another entitled 'DendroPsychoses" (mental states related to trees) explains human attitudes toward trees, climbing, falling, etc., on the basis of our ancestors having been monkeys. (24.)

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Culture-epochs theory is seldom used consistently. While this theory has been very popular in discussions, and thousands of uncritical educators accept it without question, it has seldom been used on a large scale as the real basis of a course of study. For example, the real reason why people arrange historical material chronologically is not because the child recapitulates the race, but because sequence is a fundamental element in appreciating historical significance. The reason why primitive industrial conditions are considered to be better adapted to the understanding of little children is not because the child is recapitulating the development of primitive man, but because these conditions are simpler; the wants, the conditions of production and exchange, the tools and machines all are less complicated than those of an advanced civilization. Even adults find it difficult to analyze the complicated social relations of an advanced civilization, and they would be assisted in appreciating such a situation by beginning with a study of a smaller, more local, less complicated social situation, and tracing the gradual development of social institutions. But obviously the advantage in doing this does not depend on the fact that the adults are recapitulating the stages they are studying.

That the theory is largely "academic" (that is, a nice theory for discussion) and is seldom made a real criterion for selecting or arranging subject matter is shown by the fact

that it is never carried out consistently. Take the example of the religious development of a Christian child, according to Ziller, as described above. The child is not treated as if he were a Jewish child in the early parts of Ziller's course, as he should be if he were recapitulating the pre-Christian epoch which is being studied. Instead, he celebrates Christmas and practices other Christian observances. Nor is he given training in animal sacrifices and other primitive religious rites. To take another example, I have never seen it proposed that European children should be required to use Roman numerals in mastering the fundamental operations in arithmetic before they use the Arabic or Hindu notation. Yet this is certainly the order in which their ancestral race mastered them.

Criticisms of the culture-epochs theory, biological, pedagogical, anthropological. Although the culture-epochs phase of the recapitulation theory is seldom made the real basis of the selection and arrangement of subject matter, it may be worth while to refer briefly to some of the criticisms which have been offered against it. The biological limitations are well set forth by Professor A. M. Marshall in his volume of "Biological Lectures and Addresses," in a chapter entitled The Recapitulation Theory (1894). The pedagogical limitations are thoroughly discussed by Dewey and others in the second yearbook of the National Herbart Society (1896), which contains the most thorough presentation of the subject in English.

The most fundamental basis of criticism of the value of the theory is furnished by the anthropologists, who tell us that we know practically nothing about the minds of the primitive white men; hence their development, of which we are ignorant, cannot serve as a guide by which to determine the education of children. Furthermore, as far back as we have definite historical information, the inherited qualities of the minds of the primitive white men were not different from the inherited qualities of the minds of people of the same type