Billeder på siden
PDF
ePub

circus because he symbolizes to us folly; if we eat apples because they symbolize to us the fall of man, or strawberries because they symbolize to us the scarlet woman, then perhaps the children play with the bali because it symbolizes "infinite development and absolute limitation.”

No one has ever given a particle of valid evidence to show any such preposterous associations in children's minds between plain things and these far-away abstractions. (18: 77-80.)

Thus the tendency of the progressive kindergartners to emphasize reality rather than symbolism in the kindergarten finds support from, in fact is largely due to, the very positive stand taken by scientific psychologists against Froebel's theory.

The manual-training movement. Aim more general than industrial education. - The use of constructive activities for educational purposes has found a place in all grades of American schools in a variety of forms since 1876. The work has not always been based on the same theory as in the kindergarten, but sometimes it has, and in such cases Froebel's influence has been a prominent factor.

While the development of manual-training courses has usually been associated more or less with the idea of training for industrial efficiency, still a sharp distinction has commonly been made between the two kinds of training. The historical connection between the two is suggested by such facts as the development of the name of the department of the National Educational Association which has been devoted to a consideration of manual work. In 1875 this department was organized as the Department of Industrial Education; in 1890 its name was changed to the Department of Industrial and Manual Training; in 1899 it became simply the Department of Manual Training; but since 1907 its meetings have been devoted largely to a consideration of industrial education, although this topic is no longer included in its name.

The distinction between industrial education and manual training is this: Industrial education is the training of industrial workers for industrial efficiency, thus aiming rather

directly at industrial improvement. Manual training, on the other hand, is the use of constructive activities in the school for general educative purposes, that is, for the same purpose as reading and geography, for example. Thus manual training might be provided for those intending to become bookkeepers, school-teachers, etc., who might never use, in a practical way, the skill with tools which they would acquire.

Industrial-improvement schools of Europe distinguished from manual training. -The histories of manual training in Europe usually emphasize this distinction between manual training and industrial training. Industrial schools of a great variety of types have existed in Europe in great numbers for many years. These have arisen in a variety of ways in response to varying industrial needs. The manual-training idea, on the other hand, owes its development to relatively few influences, among which that of Froebel may be counted as one of the most important.

Froebel's Helba plan probably derived from Heusinger's writings. In our general discussion of motor expression earlier in this chapter Froebel's plan of a manual-training school at Helba was summarized. This plan, which included the elements of nearly all later manual-training schemes, is important in its origin, and in its later realization in practice by Froebel's followers.

Froebel probably derived his scheme to a considerable degree from the writings of Professor Heusinger (1766–1837) of the University of Jena, who published in 1797 a book entitled "How to use the Child's Strong Impulse to Activity." Froebel's copies of Heusinger's works were among the most used in his library and were filled with penciled marginal comments. Heusinger planned to make the child's occupations the center for all school work, just as Froebel described. Froebel one influential factor in a general movement. — Froebel's idea as outlined in the Helba plan was vigorously advocated in Germany by Baroness von Bülow and other of

his disciples. At the same time other leaders, independent of Froebel, were advocating the same type of education through manual work. Hence Froebel must be considered neither as the inventor of the scheme for manual training nor as the sole leader in stimulating its adoption, but rather as one among several leaders in a general movement. In this movement, however, his influence was particularly strong for two reasons: (1) the widespread establishment of his kindergartens tended to carry with it the idea of manual training for even older children; (2) the organization of one of the most imitated of manual-training systems, the Swedish sloyd, was partially due to his influence.

Economic basis of sloyd in Finland and Sweden. - The Swedish sloyd system of manual training is an outgrowth of the industrial and educational conditions of two countries, Finland and Sweden. It owes its educational organization largely to two men, Uno Cygnæus (1810-1888) and Otto Salomon, prominent educators of the two countries respectively. A brief sketch of the development of manual training in these two countries is contained in the following quotation :

The first country where manual instruction was acknowledged as a branch of instruction with full rights in the primary [elementary] school, was Finland. The decree by which it was added as an obligatory subject to the course of training colleges and town and country schools throughout the principality of Finland, was issued in 1866. In the training colleges manual instruction comprises bench and metal work, woodcarving and basket-plaiting. The instruction is not given by artisans but by teachers. No competition with the various crafts is intended. The object is simply to impart a genuine manual dexterity to the scholars.

Swedish sloyd, originating in a purely economic movement for the revival of domestic industry, afterwards assumed an educational character. Whilst the promoters of sloyd may have been influenced by the example of Finland, it would be going too far to assert that the Swedish system is a mere branch of the Finnish. The economic societies had long been advocating and supporting domestic industry, when in 1872 the Swedish parliament voted a sum for its furtherance, and at a later time considerably increased that amount. In 1877 it granted a special

subsidy for sloyd instruction to boys; whilst in 1881 the sum was much augmented. From the regulations dated 11th September, 1877, we single out the following provision: "The instruction given must aim at producing not dexterity in any given craft, but manual dexterity generally, and ability to use the most familiar tools." Founded by August Abrahamson, and conducted by his nephew, Otto Salomon, the Sloyd Training School for Teachers at Nääs became the home of pedagogic sloyd. Its influence has extended far beyond the borders of Sweden to every civilized land, and its fame, with steady growth, has become world wide. (12: 212.)

Cygnæus derived educative principles of sloyd from Froebel. Cygnæus is said to have acknowledged that he secured his ideas concerning manual instruction from a study of the writings of Pestalozzi and Froebel. His fundamental contention was that the active occupations of the kindergarten should be continued throughout the grades. In 1877 Salomon of Sweden visited Cygnæus and henceforth advocated in his own country the general system of manual training instead of the elementary trades which were characteristic of the earlier Swedish instruction.

[ocr errors]

Sloyd system of simple, useful, wooden articles. As a practical system the Swedish sloyd plan organized by Salomon consists of several series of articles to be made, namely, a series for country schools, another for city elementary schools, and another for high schools. The different series have many models in common. Included among others are the following articles: a kindergarten pointer, a penholder, a pail handle, part of an oxbow, chopping board, flowerpot stand, ax handle, ladle, picture frame, coat stretcher, tool rack, bookstand, etc. The rules to be followed in selecting the models (articles to be made) are stated by Salomon as follows:

1. All articles of luxury should be excluded, and the models should have practical value.

2. The models should be such as can be finished by the pupils themselves.

3. They should be made entirely of wood.

4. As little material as possible should be used.

5. The work should not require polish.

6. The models should require little or no turning or carving.

7. They should develop the sense of form and beauty.

8. The construction of the series of models should require the use of all necessary tools, and the performance of the most important manipulations connected with woodwork. (13: 94.)

Value of sloyd stated in terms of formal discipline. — The educational results to be secured by such training were stated primarily in terms of formal discipline, that is, the training of general mental powers. The following quotation is typical :

Primarily sloyd is to be used as a means of formal education - formal as opposed to material. A material education seeks to impart a definite knowledge of things for their own sake. A formal education seeks chiefly to develop the innate mental powers, and selects and imparts knowledge in order to strengthen character, will-power, memory, perception. . . .

Sloyd has for its aims, as a means of formal instruction: to instill a love for work in general; to create a respect for rough, honest bodily labor; to develop self-reliance and independence; to train to habits of order, exactness, cleanliness, and neatness; to teach habits of attention, industry and perseverance; to promote the development of the physical powers; to train the eye to the sense of form, and to cultivate the dexterity of the hand. (13: 22.)

Manual training in the United States. International expositions important stimuli to educational innovations. The manual-training movement in the United States was practically initiated by the foreign exhibits at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876. Expositions have often been determining factors in initiating practical educational reforms. Thus in the London exposition of 1851 England was made aware of the superior workmanship and design in the industrial exhibits of France and immediately set out to establish schools for developing industrial art. The Paris exposition of 1867 and that of Philadelphia in 1876 taught similar lessons to various countries, including Germany and the United States. The immediate result was the emphasis on training in drawing

« ForrigeFortsæt »