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Thus by the end of 1890 there had been established in the city public-school systems of the United States, according to Mr. Ham, manual training in high schools in 38 cities; manual training in grammar grades in 34 cities; manual training in primary grades in 16 cities; kindergartens in 34 cities. Phases of manual-training theory. Briefly stated there have been the following elements involved in the theoretical considerations of what manual training should include:

1. The idea of a definite series of graded exercises :

(a) In the Russian plan the utility of the final product was subordinate, the teaching of the typical tool processes being fundamental; (b) in the Swedish sloyd, as we have seen, the utility of the product was emphasized.

2. The theory of formal discipline through manual work as stated in connection with the sloyd system on page 464.

3. The narrower idea of using kindergarten activities for "busy work" in the lower grades.

4. The arts-and-crafts idea of "honesty of material, solidity of construction, utility, adaptability to place, and æsthetic effect."

5. The idea that constructive activities as forms of expression (not as set exercises) are best suited to give the child an appreciation of industrial life and consequently of social life and of history.

This last theory approximates most closely Rousseau's idea of basing the study of social relations on industrial and economic conditions, but includes also Froebel's idea of social participation. Inasmuch as this theory is really much broader than "manual training" we shall discuss it under the following heading.

The broader Froebelian theory applied to elementary education by Colonel Parker and Dewey. Colonel Parker an educational leader from 1875 to 1902.-Colonel Francis W. Parker (1837-1902) has already been mentioned in connection with his exposition of Pestalozzian-Ritter geography, and his

scheme of concentration which was both Herbartian and Froebelian in theory. For twenty-seven years, from 1875 to 1902, Colonel Parker was one of the most prominent and aggressive champions of improved methods in elementary education in the United States. As a reformer of the schools of Quincy, Massachusetts, from 1874 to 1880; as supervisor in Boston (1880-1883); as Chautauqua lecturer to teachers (1881 on); as principal of the Cook County (Illinois) and Chicago Normal schools (1883-1899); as head of the Chicago Institute (for training teachers); and as a strenuous fighter in the National Educational Association and other teachers' organizations, Colonel Parker was the most influential personal factor during a quarter of a century in securing an adoption of the Froebelian theory in elementary-school work. While he instinctively, and from experience, tended to a belief in the Froebelian type of education, still he was doubtless influenced to a considerable degree by his studies at the University of Berlin during the two years following 1872-a period during which there was active discussion in Europe of Froebelian educational theory and practice.

Colonel Parker said Froebel's principles should revolutionize all education. In 1882 Colonel Parker made the following statement :

Froebel said that the principles he discovered and advocated, when thoroughly applied, would revolutionize the world; and he was right. In the kindergarten is the seed corn and germination of the new education and the new life. . . . One and all the true principles of education are applied in the kindergarten; these principles should be applied (simply changing the application to adapt it to different stages of growth) through all education. . . . (16a: 159.)

The fundamental Froebelian principle which heads this chapter, namely, education through motor expression and social participation, was dominant in Colonel Parker's work. In his "Talks on Pedagogics" (1894) he showed the application of this principle especially to primary work.

Expression helps thought; thought necessary for expres sion. In his discussion of motor expression he eliminated the elements of mechanical repetition and imitation which were dominant in the formalized kindergarten work and in the Swedish sloyd. In opposition to this formalism he made the two following points :

1. From the standpoint of training in thinking, he emphasized the stimulating and directing influence which is exerted on the child's thinking by his desire and his effort to find an adequate form of expression for his ideas and emotions; for example, a child's effort to draw a map makes him think more clearly about what the map represents.

2. From the standpoint of training in the conventional forms of expression, Colonel Parker emphasized the necessity of the child having a definite idea to express and himself making the connection between the idea and the appropriate form of expression. In short, he said (1) expression helps thought, and (2) thought is necessary for expression.

Training in all forms of expression necessary in elementary education. The following quotations state at length Colonel Parker's emphasis on the use of all forms of expression :

Expression may be generally defined as the manifestation of thought and emotion through the body by means of physical agents. The modes of expression are:

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All works of man's hand and brain are the products of these forms of expression. Language is by far the greatest outcome of thought and expression. . . Next to language may be placed the tools and instruments which man has used through all the ages in manifesting his needs and his aspirations to others. Art products. . . may be placed next, followed by construction or building. (16: 224.)

We must conclude that the use of all the modes of expression is an imperative necessity in all-sided growth, in the realization of the highest possibilities of manhood and character. (16: 252.)

The pedagogical value of training in all the modes of expression may be briefly stated:

1. The child's individual concepts are very simple and crude; it has no complex concepts.

2. The fundamental use of exercise in all the modes of expression is to intensify those individual concepts upon which analysis, comparison, classification, original inferences, and generalization depend.

3. Concepts are developed very slowly. The demand for expression should be adapted to the growth of concepts. Any attempt beyond this limit cripples mental action.

4. The difficulties of technique or skill are very much overestimated. The reasons for this overrating is that attempts are commonly made to make forms of expression without adequate motive and unimpelled by thought, forms that have no thought correspondence.

5. If, in the studies of the central subjects [content subjects], all the modes of expression are continually and skillfully used to intensify thought, every child would acquire proficiency in modeling, painting, and drawing. (16: 260.)

Colonel Parker carried out these ideas in practice in his schools. From his normal school they were carried by many trained teachers into other institutions, but in such cases the work often became isolated manipulation and lost the character of being a means of expression for ideas in the study of history, science, and geography.

Silent reading, speech, and oral reading should be distinguished. In connection with the so-called language arts Colonel Parker distinguished between (1) speech, (2) silent reading, and (3) oral reading. Speech and oral reading he considered as forms of expression. Ordinary reading (silent reading), he said, is not a form of expression but a matter of attention.

Many of the grossest errors in teaching reading spring from confounding the two processes of attention and expression. Reading in itself is not expression any more than observation or hearing-language is expression. The custom of making oral reading the principal and almost the only means of teaching reading has led to the many errors prevalent to-day.

This same theory is expressed more extremely by the leading Canadian Froebelian, J. L. Hughes, in a little book called "Teaching to Read" (1909), in which he maintains that the ordinary method of teaching oral reading not only makes poor silent readers but at the same time makes poor oral readers and does not develop facility in speaking. The way to secure the three ends, he says, is to train in silent reading and in speech separately at first, and only after considerable facility has been acquired in each should oral reading be begun.

Colonel Parker also emphasized the social element in education very strongly, but as this point is most typical of Professor Dewey's work we will take it up in connection with the latter.

Dewey's ideas dominant in reconstructing contemporary educational theory. In the last sixteen years (1895-1912) the educational writings and experiments of Professor John Dewey (1859-) have been the most influential factors in stimulating a general revision in educational theory in the United States. To a certain extent Dewey's principles of education are similar to those of Froebel, although not derived from the latter.

Professor Dewey (now at Columbia University) ranks very high among American professors of philosophy, and is commonly known as an exponent of “pragmatism.” He is also well known as a constructive thinker along the lines of general psychological theory and social psychology. His educational principles are clearly applications to one type of social situation (the school) of the principles included in his scientific and philosophic systems. In view of this fact the similarity to Froebelian theory may be considered as largely coincidence rather than indebtedness.

Dewey described similarity of his and Froebel's theories. -This similarity Dewey himself expressed in an account of the experimental school which he conducted at The University

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