experiments which demonstrate that every change in the sensory stimuli (light, sounds, odors, etc.) which are affecting a person produces a corresponding change in his muscular adjustment. This change may be only a slight variation in the pulse or in the breathing, but some motor readjustment always occurs.

Difficult to make correct pedagogical inference. - Relatively unthinking pedagogs have seized upon the phrase “no impression without expression," and have assumed that it necessarily means that the schools must provide manual training, drawing, measuring, dramatization, and other forms of overt, evident, abundant physical movement. But the correct pedagogical inference from the facts mentioned is not so easily made as has commonly been assumed. In the first place, the motor reaction or expression is bound to take place whether education provides for it and takes account of it or does not. The child is constantly reacting; his physiological mechanism is such that he cannot help it.

- In

Schools have always provided for motor expression. the second place, the schools have seldom taught by methods that did not explicitly provide for motor expression. As James said:

The older pedagogic method of learning things by rote, and reciting them parrot-like in the schoolroom rested on the truth that a thing merely read or heard, and never verbally reproduced, contracts the weakest possible adhesion in the mind. Verbal recitation or reproduction is thus a highly important kind of reactive behavior on our impressions; and it is to be feared that, in the reaction against the old parrot-recitations as the beginning and end of instruction, the extreme value of verbal recitation as an element of complete training may nowadays be too much forgotten. (19: 34.)

Speech and inhibition fundamental in civilized activity: Thorndike. The warning which James expressed has been reiterated by some of the younger educational psychologists. Thus Professor E. L. Thorndike (1874-) of Teachers College, Columbia University, says:

It is, however, important that certain corollaries of the relation of thought to movement should be emphasized. In the first place the muscular contractions involved in speech, facial expression, and eye movements, are from the point of view of mental progress the most important. The head is intellectually king even in the muscular system. Motor training which neglects speech leaves out a keystone. Constructive work which thinks of the hand oftener than the eye is ill-balanced. We can judge intellect and morals far better from observation of facial expression than from the entire gamut of hand and arm movements. In the second place, muscular contraction, the expression of mental life, is not synonymous with movement. A great part of muscular activity serves to prevent movement. These inhibitory activities are indeed the ones most concerned in mental life. The mind may almost be said to be what the body does not do. Its lessons are lessons of control, guidance, restraint. . . It literally requires more activity for a kindergarten child to listen than to sing, to sit still than to run. Inhibitory activities, though fatiguing and likely to be overemphasized by those of a puritanical or schoolmaster temperament, are highly educative. Their neglect means the "spoiled child" intellectually and morally. (24: 50.)

Central thought processes, not muscular movement, most significant: Judd. - A further development of the point of view and the warning expressed by James is contained in the recent work of Professor C. H. Judd (1873———), director of the School of Education of The University of Chicago. The problem which Judd discusses is one of the most advanced in contemporary psychology; hence the student reading this need not be discouraged if he does not understand the brief summary here presented. In his "Psychology" (1907) Judd emphasizes the importance, from a new point of view, of the ideational processes, that is, "the rational function of consciousness" (theoretical and abstract thought) which James said the biological conception had tended to subordinate in value to the practical. Judd says:

The purpose of this book may, therefore, be stated in terms which mark as sharp a contrast as possible with much that has been said and written of late regarding the advantage of what might be called a biological point of view in the study of consciousness. This work is intended to develop a point of view which shall include all that is given in the

biological doctrine of adaptation, while at the same time it passes beyond the biological doctrine to a more elaborate principle of indirect ideational adaptation. (20: vi.)

Thought and language the highest elements in human adaptive behavior. — Judd believes, as did James, that the development of consciousness in the process of evolution has been determined by variation, adaptation, and selection in relation to behavior, in the same way that bodily structures have been evolved. But, instead of maintaining that this shows the primary importance in man of the coarser and more direct motor adjustments that have characterized the lower stages of evolution, Judd points out the essential contrast between man and the lower animals as represented in the organization of their nervous systems. This difference consists in the superior development in man of large and intricately constructed parts of the brain, which make possible the higher mental processes that distinguish man from the lower animals, namely, such processes as speech, the thoughtful solution of complicated problems, etc. All of these processes may have their origin in the needs of practical adaptation or behavior, but the simple movements which constitute the motor response (such as signing one's name to an agreement or even constructing a wireless-telegraph instrument) are far outweighed in importance by the organized thought which has planned or preceded the movements. In this organized thought, language, according to Judd, is a far more important instrument than the forms of expression used in the arts and industries. As compared with language, most of the other forms of expression which Colonel Parker enumerated are relatively unimportant instruments in the thinking of civilized people. Hence, from the standpoint of the organization of the central nervous system, according to Judd, we get the same justification for an emphasis on verbal expression that was stated by James and Thorndike in the quotations given above.

But even though language is so important in human thinking, it does not follow that the mechanical acquisition of language such as prevailed in the traditional school is justified by Judd's theory. Rather, it would seem, should emphasis be placed on a complete development of the organizing thought processes, which come between the sensory stimulus and the muscular response. If this is done, there results the same emphasis on the "reconstruction of experience," that is, the child reorganizing the material in his own mind before expressing the thought to others, as Dewey advocates.

Important distinction between motor expression and manual skill. The careful statements by such eminent psychologists as James, Thorndike, and Judd, concerning the relations that exist between thought and the various forms of motor expression, stand in sharp contrast to the hasty conclusions of relatively unthinking educators who have been carried away by the phrase "no impression without expression." The latter have commonly failed to distinguish between manual skill, which is important in carrying on industrial and artistic processes, on the one hand, and the use of manual activities as a means of expressing thought on the other hand. For this latter purpose the psychologists mentioned above rate language as most important. If this is a true estimate, educators should not measure the value of the other forms of motor activity primarily on the basis of the psychological theory of "no impression without expression," but should endeavor to justify these activities by their other social values which can be readily established.

Froebelian social point of view prominent to-day. The Froebelian principle of education through motor expression and social participation has been shown by this discussion to play a prominent part in the most recent reform tendencies in elementary education. It appears as the basis of kindergarten training and as a large factor in the manual-training movement. As applied in the elementary school it is changing

the methods of training in expression and is developing a very conscious social point of view for judging all educational problems. While this general point of view is antithetical to the nonsocial view of education taken by Rousseau, it will be instructive to turn back to page 206 and see how many of the reforms in methods which have been traced in the last six chapters were stated in the summary of Rousseau's principles. Especial attention should be given to his suggestion of the industrial approach to the study of social relations, which is one of the most notable elements in the modern social conception of education.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

Concerning Froebelian theory in relation to Rousseau and Pestalozzi. 1. FROEBEL, F. The Education of Man. (D. Appleton and Company, trans. by Hailmann.) This is the best source. In reading this book it is well to try to disregard the extreme symbolic-religious elements and compare its more practical recommendations with similar ones in Rousseau's "Émile."

2. FROEBEL, F. Autobiography. (In Barnard. See below, No. 7.) 3. FROEBEL, F. On Pestalozzi. (In Barnard, p. 49. See below.) These two accounts (Nos. 2 and 3) give clear insight into Froebel's peculiar temperament and show his direct connection with Pestalozzi. 4. FROEBEL, F. Pedagogics of the Kindergarten. (D. Appleton and Company, 1897.)

5. FROEBEL, F. The Mottoes and Commentaries of Froebel's Mother Play. (D. Appleton and Company, 1898.) These two references (Nos. 4 and 5) may be examined, but they do not furnish nearly as much valuable historical material as the previous ones.

6. MARENHOLZ-BÜLOW, BARONESS. Reminiscences of Friedrich Froebel. (Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1897.) An account of an intimate association with Froebel during the last twelve years of his life. Very helpful in getting an understanding of Froebel's later work and his relation to German Pestalozzianism.

Histories of the Kindergarten Movement.-7. BARNARD, H. Kindergarten and Child Culture. (C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 1890.) The most useful single volume on Froebel, containing everything from his