autobiography to the early development in the United States. This is not so easily obtained, however, as is No. 8.

8. BOWEN, H. C. Froebel and Education through Self-Activity. (Charles Scribner's Sons, Great Educator Series, 1893.) The best interpretative historical account. It should be supplemented for Germany by No. 9.

9. FRANKS, F. The Kindergarten System, its Origin and Development. (Adapted from the German of Hanschmann.) (Sonnenschein, 1897.) 10. VANDEWALKER, NINA C. The Kindergarten in American Education. (The Macmillan Company, 1908.) A thoroughgoing historical

account.

II. HARRIS, WILLIAM T. Early History of the Kindergarten in St. Louis, United States Commissioner of Education Report, 1896–1897. Vol. I, pp. 899-922. A reprint from the St. Louis reports. Very valuable and easily obtained.

Concerning the History of Manual Training. Hand and Eye Training. (Newman, London, n. d.) x are historical.

12. GOETZE, W. Chaps. iv, v, ix, and

13. HOFFMAN, B. B. The Sloyd System. (American Book Company, 1892.) Pp. 53-91 contain a historical account by Salomon. Pp. 235–242 are also historical.

14. Ham, C. H, Mind and Hand. (American Book Company, 1900.) Discussion by one of the leading opponents of manual training. Chaps. xxvi and xxvii are especially good on the history of manual training in the higher institutions of the United States. Statistical historical tables included.

15. MCARTHUR, A. Education in its Relation to Manual Industry. (D. Appleton and Company, 1884.) Contains material concerning the relation between industrial development and drawing and industrial education before the eighties.

15 a. JESSUP, W. A. Social Factors affecting Special Supervision in the Public Schools of the United States. (Teachers College, New York, 1911.) Chap. iv.

15b. CLARK, I. E. Art and Industry. (United States Bureau of Education, 1885-1889.) Vols. I and II are full of information concerning the early development of drawing and manual training in the United States. See also reports of United States Commissioner of Education from 1877 on, under Commissioner's Summary.

Other works referred to in the chapter. 16. PARKER, F. W. Talks on Pedagogics. (Kellogg, 1894.)

16a. PARKER, F. W. Talks on Teaching. (Kellogg, 1891.)

17. Elementary School Record. (The University of Chicago Press, 1900.)

18. THORNDIKE, E. L. Notes on Child Study. (The Macmillan Company, 1903.)

19. JAMES, W. Talks to Teachers. (Henry Holt and Company, 1902.) 20. JUDD, C. H. Psychology. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907.) 21. HUGHES, J. Teaching to read. (The A. S. Barnes Co., 1909.) 22. DAVIDSON, T. Rousseau and Education according to Nature. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907.)

23. HEINEMANN, A. H. Letters of Froebel. (Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co., 1893.)

24. Teachers' College Record. Vol. IV, 1903.

25. HARRIS, WILLIAM T. Report of the Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo., 1878-1879.

CHAPTER XIX

CONCLUSION; PRESENT TENDENCIES

Summary of development from 1300 to 1900. The religious basis of elementary education. In the preceding chapters we traced the development of elementary education from the Middle Ages to the present time. We noted that the first important elementary vernacular schools to develop in Western Europe among the Germanic peoples were those established in the commercial cities toward the close of the Middle Ages. At that time there were practically no such schools in the villages and rural districts. The Protestant Reformation established a theoretical basis for universal vernacular education, namely, the necessity of reading the Bible for religious salvation; but it was only in the exceptionally favored cases, such as Puritan Massachusetts and a few of the smaller German states, that effective elementary schools were early developed on this basis. In general, vernacular schools were mere makeshifts down to the beginning of the nineteenth century, usually teaching children only the catechism and the bare elements of reading and writing.

Secular tendencies culminating in Rousseau's" Émile.” During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries secular interests developed and gradually overthrew the ecclesiastical control which had dominated life and education for so many centuries. The most important educational expression of these tendencies was Rousseau's "Émile," published in 1762. The Émile" served as a spark to start an educational revolution which soon developed an entirely secular basis for elementary education. The elementary schools were first secularized on

a large scale in Prussia. In England the struggle for complete secularization is still going on. In the United States most of the states had developed secular-school systems by the middle of the nineteenth century.

Methods of secularized elementary school developed by Pestalozzi and followers. - Rousseau's suggestions for reforms in the curriculum and methods of elementary education were taken up by Pestalozzi. The experiments of Pestalozzi during the first quarter of the nineteenth century developed the oral and objective methods in the teaching of elementary science, home geography, and primary arithmetic, and the synthetic methods of teaching reading, writing, and drawing, which were dominant in elementary schools during the nineteenth century. Pestalozzi neglected history and literature, however, and the organization of these subjects in the elementary curriculum was especially emphasized by Herbart and his followers, who also emphasized the educational value of interest, apperception, correlation, and the systematic organization of units of instruction. It remained for Froebel, an intimate disciple of Pestalozzi, to emphasize the motor processes involved in manual training and other forms of expression, and the importance of the social experiences of children while in school, as educative factors. These factors have found practical application in the kindergarten, and their application in other parts of the elementary school is now being considered and tested.

Greatest change in elementary education during nineteenth century. The development or change in elementary education represented in the foregoing summary is enormous. It seems even greater when we consider that most of the actual changes took place during the nineteenth century. From 1500 to 1800 the elementary school changed very little. Its curriculum was so narrow, its equipment so meager, its teachers so poorly prepared, and its methods so wasteful, that children of good elementary schools of the present day could

learn in two or three years all that was accomplished in the eighteenth century in the whole elementary school course.

Recent tendencies: vocational; civic; individual; scientific.— But if the development during the nineteenth century was so great, the development in the near future promises to be equally so. From the mass of discussions and experiments that are being conducted it is difficult to select those that are most significant, but attention is called to the following as being especially noteworthy :

1. The introduction into the elementary school of industrial and prevocational courses organized as definite preparation for specific vocations.

2. The endeavor to organize effective moral and civic instruction.

3. The provision made for varying instruction so as to meet the varying needs of pupils that are due to individual differences in capacities, in economic status, and in plans for

a career.

4. The tendency to measure accurately the results of instruction by precise, objective, scientific methods as a means of testing its value, instead of relying on the vague and unproved opinions of theorists or of untrained observers.

All of these factors have been topics of active discussion since 1900 and have been effectively provided for already in some of the more progressive elementary-school systems.