them, in time of war, to handle musket and pike, to mount the walls, or to do whatever else the exigency may require; with how much the more reason ought they to compel the people to keep their children at school, inasmuch as here upon earth the most terrible of contests, wherein there is never a truce, is ever going on, and that with the devil himself. . . . Wherefore, let magistrates lay these things to heart, and let them keep a vigilant look-out; and, wherever they see a promising lad, have him pledged at school.

This was the same theory upon which pre-Reformation education was largely based, namely, liberal provision of classical secondary schools to select and train leaders. The authority was changed, however, from Church to State. According to Luther the instruction of all children in reading was to be incidental to other work of the classical schools. Thus he said:

Boys shall attend upon such schools as I have in view an hour or two a day, and none less; spend the rest of their time at home, or in learning some trade, or doing whatever else you will.'. . . So, too, your little girls may easily find time to go to school an hour a day and yet do all their household duties.

It is sometimes assumed that Luther was advocating some innovation in industrial education in this statement. It is probable that he was doing just the opposite; that is, he said to parents, you may continue to have your boys learn a trade or do whatever you please, and may continue to have your girls help with the housework, but you should also let all your children go to school one hour a day, so that they might learn to read. This last suggestion constitutes the innovation, not the training for a trade, which was the common practice. German laws subordinated elementary schools. In carrying out Luther's suggestions, those Protestant states of Germany, in which the rulers were interested in education, first turned their energies to providing Latin schools (Latin being the necessary approach to all higher study). Such schools were organized in Magdeburg in 1524, in Eisleben (Luther's

birthplace) in 1525, and as a state system in Saxony in 1528. In the last named, instruction in the German language was expressly prohibited. This subordination of the vernacular schools is described by Paulsen as follows:

The later School Regulations issued by Melanchthon and Bugenhagen [German Protestant educators of northern Germany] also let the matter rest there; the grammar school continued to occupy the place of the public school, open to everybody; German schools" dentally mentioned as being in existence and tolerated.

were only inci

The earliest School Regulations which devoted a separate paragraph to "German schools" were those issued in 1559 by Christopher, Duke of Württemberg, which were important in more respects than one. All their essential points were adopted by the Regulations for the Electorate of Saxony of 1580. Here again, it is true, the German school continued to be regarded as nothing more than a makeshift for villages and market towns; wherever a regular," i.e. a grammar school existed, the German school was treated as a mere annex or offshoot. According to these Regulations the instruction in the German school, which was, as a rule, given by the sacristan or parish clerk — it was expressly stipulated that he should not be beadle or constable at the same time! - comprised reading, writing, catechism, and singing. (7: 77.)

Although the German schools were dealt with only incidentally in the official regulations, there was considerable provision in the larger towns for private reading and writing schools such as were noted in the last chapter. Moreover, instruction in Luther's catechism was given in the home and by the preachers, and teaching to read was sometimes connected with this instruction. Nevertheless, it is a fair generalization to say that the immediate increase in the provision of elementary education as a result of the Reformation was not very large.

In England. Many Latin schools abolished by the Chantries Acts. We have seen that Latin grammar schools existed in great numbers in England before the Reformation. Sometimes elementary vernacular reading and writing were taught in these. A few of the chantry schools were primarily vernacular schools. In the towns, vernacular schools to teach writing,

reckoning, and reading were often provided by private adventure teachers, or perhaps occasionally by the town authorities. The immediate effect of the Reformation on the Latin grammar schools was practically to wipe many of them out of existence. This was due especially to the Chantries Acts. (1545-1552), which abolished chantries as superstitious practices. It was the expressed intention to use the chantry endowments for the establishment of new schools, but as a matter of fact part of the funds and lands were used for other purposes. The effect of the Chantries Acts on elementary schools was probably not as serious as on the Latin schools.

Neither Church nor State provided effective elementary schools.- The history of elementary schools in England of this period has not been studied sufficiently to provide a reliable account of it. The conditions of elementary education were probably poorer than in most other countries, Protestant or Catholic. Down to the period of the Puritan Commonwealth (1649-1660) and after, the Established Church was largely Catholic in spirit, but it lacked the organizations (such as the Brethren of the Christian Schools) which in some Catholic countries maintained effective elementary schools. It also lacked the dominant spirit of extreme Calvinistic Protestantism, which was represented in the organization of the Scottish Church and resulted in a system of elementary schools in Scotland. Consequently there was no organized attempt to provide elementary schools in England until 1699, when the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was established.

Some elementary instruction in reëstablished Latin schools.

The Latin grammar schools which had been destroyed by Henry VIII and Edward VI were gradually reëstablished, or new ones founded, so that by the end of the reign of Elizabeth (1603) there were at least as many if not more than before the Reformation. (12: 11.) Provision for elementary vernacular

education was sometimes made in connection with these schools. The elementary scholars were called "petites" and were commonly taught reading and writing and casting accounts, in addition to the catechism and the principles of religion. Sometimes the grammar master combined the functions of Latin and vernacular teacher. Sometimes the petites were taught by advanced pupils, and occasionally a special elementary vernacular teacher was employed.

Dame schools furnished most of elementary instruction.— Most of the elementary vernacular instruction, however, was in private adventure or "dame" schools. Evidence of this is found in educational writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Thus Richard Mulcaster said in 1581: "For the Elementary, because good scholars will not abase themselves to it, it is left to the meanest, and therefore to the worst." (10: 156.) Similarly, Edmund Coote (1596) partially addressed his "English Schoolmaster," a textbook for elementary schools, as follows:

To the unskilful, which desire to make use of it for their own private benefit, and to such men and women of trade, as Tailors, Weavers, Shopkeepers, Seamsters, and such others as have undertaken the charge of teaching others. [With this textbook] thou mayest sit on thy shop-board, at thy books or thy needle, and never hinder any work to hear thy scholars, after thou hast made this little book familiar to thee. (10: 156.)

Instruction at home very common in England. In addition to the instruction provided in the Latin grammar schools and the dame schools, it was very common to teach children at home, particularly among the Puritans. In these homes family worship and Bible reading were important phases of life,“ and these naturally led to teaching children to read. Watson cites the following example from the "Autobiography of Adam Martindale" (born 1623).

When I was near six years old, one Anne Simpkin, who was one of my sureties at the font, being grown low in the world, but not in goodness, out of a real principle of conscience to perform her promises and