11. MONTMORENCY, J. E. G. State Intervention in English Education, a Short History from the Earliest Times down to 1833. (The Macmillan Company, 1902.) Very good. See also Montmorency's articles in Monroe's Cyclopædia of Education (No. 23 below), under Common Master of the Town, and Elizabethan Period. 12. STOWE, A. M. Elizabethan Grammar Schools. (Teachers College, New York, 1908.) Incidental material about elementary schools. 13. LEACH, A. F. English Schools at the Reformation. (Constable, 1896.) Incidental material about elementary schools. Concerning Puritan schools of Massachusetts. 14. EGGLESTON, EDWARD. The Transit of Civilization. (D. Appleton and Company, 1901.) An account of the social life in the American colonies in relation to European antecedents. Very attractive style. Should be read by all teachers of history of education. See also Eggleston's Beginners of a Nation. (D. Appleton and Company, 1897.) 15. Cheyney, E. P. European Background of American History. (Harper & Brothers, 1906.) Good for relation of New England and English town governments. See especially chap. xvi. 16. UPDEGRAFF, H. Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts. (Teachers College, New York, 1908.) Extensive discussion of social basis of Massachusetts education. 17. MARTIN, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts School System. (D. Appleton and Company, 1894.) Concerning early schools of Pennsylvania.-18. WICKERSHAM, J. P. History of Education in Pennsylvania. (Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1886.) Somewhat difficult to obtain. Contains accounts of establishment of schools by each of the many religious sects which settled in Pennsylvania. Other books referred to. - 19. CUBBERLEY, E. P. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education. (The Macmillan Company, 1904.) 20. CLEWES, E. W. Educational Legislation of the Colonial Governments. (Columbia University.) 21. GREEN, J. R. Short History of the English People. 22. HINSDALE, B. A. Documents Illustrative of American Educational History, Report of United States Commissioner of Education, 1892-1893. Pp. 1225-1414. A very convenient source for Massachusetts and Connecticut colonial legislation. 23. MONROE, P. Cyclopædia of Education. (The Macmillan Company, 1911.) CHAPTER IV ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM AND METHODS BEFORE THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Main points of the chapter. 1. Religious issues dominated the thought of Europe during the periods of religious strife which followed the Reformation. Hence the elementary school continued to be dominated by religious ideals. 2. The schools of Puritan Massachusetts are good representatives of this narrow religious conception. 3. Puritan life was characterized by active thought in the field of theology, but by indifference, opposition, ignorance, and superstition in the field of art, literature, and science. 4. The curriculum of the colonial elementary schools usually included reading and writing, occasionally included arithmetic, but practically never any other subjects. 5. Until 1750, religious books, especially the primer and the Bible, were used for teaching reading. The primer was originally a lay religious service book. 6. About 1750, spelling books began to be used, and Webster's speller, published in 1783, soon made spelling one of the most important subjects in the curriculum. 7. Because of poor methods and poor equipment fully two thirds of the time was wasted. (a) Hours of the pupils' time were wasted by the method of individual recitation which was used. (b) Hours of the teacher's time were wasted in making quill pens and "setting" copies and sums. Curriculum dominated by religious traditions. The previous chapter demonstrated that elementary schools established during the Reformation were dominated by religious ideals, as distinguished from the commercial ideals which prevailed in city vernacular schools at the end of the Middle Ages. Religious issues continued to occupy the attention of Europe for a long time, and the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were periods of intense religious strife. On the continent this strife culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) between the Catholic forces led by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, on one side, and the Protestant German states, assisted by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, on the other side. In England we have already noticed the developments in the religious controversies up to the period of the Puritan Commonwealth (1649-1660). Neither the Commonwealth nor the restoration of the monarchy (1660) brought religious peace, which was not assured until the Revolution of 1688. The narrow religious conception of elementary education which had developed during the Reformation and the period of religious strife continued in force down to the nineteenth century. This conception was represented in its most intense and narrow form among the Massachusetts Puritans, and paralleled the narrowness of their life in its other aspects. We will consider some of these other aspects, particularly their ideas concerning literature, art, and science, as a basis for understanding their ideas concerning the elementary school curriculum. Calvinistic ascetic ideals prominent in Puritan literature.In the preceding chapter we noted the Puritan enthusiasm for the study of the Bible. Among other examples of popular Puritan literature was Bishop Bayle's "Practice of Piety, directing a Christian how to walke that he may please God." This was popular well down into the eighteenth century, and editions of it "tumbled headlong from the press in a succession so rapid that the booksellers of the time became confused in attempting to number them." It consisted largely of fine-spun theological discussions and directions for religious conduct that no one would think of reading to-day. Seventy-five pages were devoted to enforcing the duty of keeping the Sabbath. It forbade "trimming, painting and pampering" of oneself on Sunday, which was "doing the divel's work upon God's Day"; also "Studying any Books of Science but the holy Scripture and Divinitie"; also all sports and even "all talking about worldly things." Perhaps the most popular book was "The Day of Doom, or a Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment with a Short Discourse about Eternity," by Michael Wigglesworth, published in 1662. This was popular for over a hundred years and went through many editions. The following quotation is the answer of the judge to the plea of nonelect infants for mercy, and illustrates the Puritan idea of the child's character: ९९ Little secular All phases of art neglected by Puritans. English literature found a place in the Puritan colonies. The dominant theological interests and the opposition to worldly pleasures practically excluded it. Professor Norton says, There is, I believe, no evidence that there was a copy of Shakespeare's plays in Massachusetts during the seventeenth century." Mr. Eggleston says, "Shakespeare was never mentioned or quoted by any American writer in the seventeenth century, so far as I know." (1: 139.) This neglect of secular literature is but one example of the statement that "Puritanism habitually regarded religion and |