Without such intention they exercised an influence upon the young readers. The students not only picked forbidden fruit from Ovid, but their minds were often captivated by serious thoughts, not at all in harmony with church tenets. This is obvious from the persistent opposition which the profane sciences, and especially the classical studies, suffered from ascetic church dignitaries. Christianity, true to its origin, had not yet lost the tendency of despising the world and its treasures, and monachism itself had taken its origin from the persistent obedience to this thought, so that the church had serious scruples from time to time as to whether it should be permitted to devote time and talent to the reading of heathenish authors. But it is a token of the tolerance and sense of moderation of that time that such scruples and tendencies never became paramount. A comparison was repeated by means of which St. Augustine had justified it that the Christian church imbibe the culture of antiquity (De doctrina Christiana I, 60). As the Israelites, so he said, took away with them at their departure from Egypt golden and silver vessels and rich garments taken from the inhabitants of the country "for better use," so the Christian ought to snatch away gold and silver from the heathen, that is, their knowledge and science, and make them useful in the service of divine truth. Hence, classical studies (of course always to the extent permitted by available sources and the aims in view) found faithful and affectionate cultivation in monasteries. Beside the time of Charlemagne that of the Ottos distinguished itself in this respect.

Greek was almost wholly unknown in Germany and of no importance for practice in schools. Under the names of the other liberal arts were often concealed matters that differed greatly from their original meaning. Rhetoric, for instance, was not, as in antiquity, the art of oral speech, but comprehended instruction in the composition of letters, documents, and other writings, chiefly legal. This was an art very important for life during that time, and exclusively exercised by the clergy. But for this business a knowledge of the law was needed; hence during the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages a certain acquaintance with codes of law and Roman sources of law was maintained in convents. Dialectics at this period was the art of logical thinking and clever dispute. It was the weapon of the church militant, but only toward the close of the Middle Ages did it become of special importance.

The quadrivium supplied some knowledge of real things, but an extensive pursuit of these branches was not frequent and was considered difficult. Arithmetic and astronomy gave the dates and furnished the skill necessary for the computation or calculation of the church festivals. Music, an art which claimed a large space in divine services, was treated theoretically to a degree. There was no geometry as we understand the term; it consisted of geographical, natural, scientific, and medical knowledge, variously mixed with bits of theological knowledge. We have written evidence of what toward the end of that period a

learned abbot imagined the course of study in ecclesiastical schools should be in complete execution. Wilhelm of Hirschau (abbot from 1069 to 1091), a student of the monastery school of St. Emmeram in Regensburg, was a promoter of strict monastery discipline, devoted, however, to the cultivation of ecclesiastical and profane sciences. He is said to have been well instructed in the arts of the quadrivium, aud was a celebrated church dignitary. In a work concerning philosophic and astronomie instruction, he says: "The course, however, is that because all teaching is done by word of mouth (eloquentia), we are to be instructed in speaking first. This instruction is divided into three parts, to write and speak correctly, as prescribed by grammar; to prove what has to be proved, in conformity with dialectics, and to ornate the same, as taught by rhetoric. Thus fitted out, and provided with these arms, we must begin the study of philosophy, in which the order is, first, the quadrivium, and then the Holy Scriptures, arriving, through knowledge of that which is created, to the knowledge of the creator." (Specht, loc. cit., p. 385, rem. 3.) This is the system of ecclesiastical instruction at that time, not as it was really everywhere followed, but as an ideal formulated by a thinker.

5. Nobility and people.—The education outlined in the foregoing paragraphs was not only the only kind known at that time, but it was confined essentially to that class of the German people for which it was intended-that is, for the clergy. The nobility, during that period only, comprising the highest dignitaries of the Empire, found in the management of public affairs and in the use of arms a life task which was considered quite equal in importance to that of the clergy, and for which the study of the liberal arts was not at all necessary. The noble youth learned to ride, to chase, and the use of arms, but seldom did he learn to read and write. The noble knight thought it pernicious to keep his son at his books instead of letting him exercise from earliest youth the arts of his class. Only at the court a more active part in acquiring book learning seemed at times desirable. The chief magistrate of the Empire, the "Kaiser" or King, needed to read written Latin and to understand it. Sometimes he and his court attendants showed a desire for intellectual education for its own sake. Then the sciences, i. e., the liberal arts, found a zealous cultivation at the court, and their acquisition extended in ever-widening circles among the highest nobles of the realm. Thus it happened during harlemagne's reign and again during that of the Ottos.

The women of nobility played a peculiar and to some extent a prominent rôle in the civilization of that time. Those belonging to religious orders, the inmates of nunneries and choir houses, received an education similar to that of monks. It is known that the nun Roswitha, of Gandersheim, composed Latin comedies after the model of Terentius, and her example was not an isolated one. If women lived "in the world" they often showed more inclination and found more time

than men to learn at least the elements of culture. In cloister schools more distinctly female instruction was given to the daughters of nobles, such as all kinds of female handiwork.

The great mass of the people received even less instruction than the nobles. The elementary knowledge taught in ecclesiastical schools had meaning and importance only in connection with the course for ecclesiasties. All instruction was fashioned to meet the needs of the clergy. Reading was practiced only in Latin; the art of writing, either employed in copying or in the composition of documents, was distinctly termed an ecclesiastical art; the art of calculating with numbers served ecclesiastical purposes. The squires and vassals of high nobility, the citizens of burgs that had only just begun to rise to prominence, and, above all, the masses of the rural population, lived their simple lives without school education. The man at that time who managed the plow, wielded the sword or his tools, felt his existence as well filled as his successors in later years when the printing press changed the aspect of life in every grade of society. During the predominance of ecclesiasticism the illiterate seemed well satisfied when the church took care of the welfare of his soul and joined the contents of his barren life to something higher.

II. SECOND PART OF THE MIDDLE AGES (1200-1500).

UNIVERSITIES AND PARTICULAR SCHOOLS-TOWN SCHOOLS.

1. Chivalry and its effect.-Up to the twelfth century there had been only one kind of education-the ecclesiastical. When noblemen felt an inclination to acquire intellectual education they could do so only by taking part in ecclesiastical instruction. The period of the Crusades produced a great change in this, as it did in so many other affairs. It created chivalry, which had its adherents beyond the narrowly defined circle of nobility proper, among squires and vassals, and which united them all to a special class with similar habitudes of life and a strong sentiment of rank. Chivalry caused a special and distinctly secular education to grow up in the social community of knights and their followers. The finest product of this education was German poetry of the second half of the twelfth and the first half of the thirteenth century. It flourished surprisingly in love songs, popular and art epics. In the poetic work of this time the highest joy in secular life is expressed. Wolfram, of Eschenbach, himself would ennoble, but never abolish, chivalry in favor of an ecclesiastical life.

Under the influence of this newly developed culture the knight and noble was obliged to give his children another education than the one that had prevailed hitherto. Instruction in poetry and music-for music was still intimately connected with poetic elocution-took the most important place. To this came the learning of foreign languages, especially the French, because chivalry found its model in the French

nobility. Artistic and literary skill were combined with athletic strength and dexterity, which had always been highly prized among the nobles. The seven liberal arts of the clergy were supplanted by the seven knightly virtues-riding, swimming, shooting with the bow, fencing, hunting, chess playing, and poetry (rhyming). From the ecclesiastical course of instruction only the arts of reading and writing were adopted, but that the education of a knight could afford to do without even these is shown by the example of Wolfram of Eschenbach. The form which chivalric instruction adopted was not that of a school. Private tutors instructed the boys in "knowledge and polite manners." Voyages and journeys into other countries and a sojourn at greater or smaller courts and castles were added as means of education. A system of tutorial education was thus formed, to which the nobility of later times also gave preference.

However important this new current proved to be for the intellectual life of Germany, it is of no special significance for the history of schools, because this first light-colored flash of a purely secular education did not create a school type of its own, unless it be that of private tutorship. Besides, it was of too short a duration. The blossom of German poetry and chivalry passed away as quickly as it had opened. Soon ecclesiastical education again had its sway, and only gradually a secular-civil education grew up in the cities, "from below," as it were. This was destined to be of longer duration, because it was based upon practical necessities-not upon cheerful enjoyment of life, but upon diligent and thorough labor.

2. Universities; their origin.-At the same time in which in Germany the education of chivalry was at its highest, at about 1200, there was founded in Paris a university which became a model for Germany-that is, the supreme ecclesiastical institution of learning. More than one hundred and fifty years passed before the first university of that kind in Germany was founded. The Parisian school was, however, the final result of a long course of development in which newly arising branches of science had sought and found appropriate forms of propagation. It is necessary to briefly analyze this course of development.

In lower Italy, at the point where Occidental and Arabian culture came in contact, medicine had been raised to an independent study. The medical school at Salerno was already celebrated in the eleventh century, and remained also during the following centuries the most frequented high seat of learning for that science. Praised less, but perhaps for Northern Europe of no inferior importance, was the more conveniently situated medical school at Montpellier, in Southern France. This school is mentioned as early as during the first half of the twelfth century. In 1137 Adalbert of Mayence attended the lectures of the learned physicians of that school.

The science of Roman law was not extinct in Italy. Old law schools existed in Rome, Ravenna, and Pavia. They all, however, were over

taken in the eleventh century by Bologna, where the famous jurist Irnerius, who was named the "enlightener of the science of law," taught Roman law from 1088. This study led, first of all, to the formation of a new mode of instruction. During the political confusion into which Bologna as well as other cities in upper Italy was thrown, in consequence of the strife between the papal and the imperial power, the students (mostly men in early maturity and partly in important life positions) felt the necessity of securing solitude and safety in their studies within the city. They entered into a close corporation and tried to make this legally independent of the town community. In their endeavors to that end they found protection in the German Imperial Government. Frederick Barbarossa granted them important privileges

in 1158.

Side by side with the study of Roman law (about 1140) that of church. or canonical law developed and soon overtook the former in importance. In the later universities of the Middle Ages, except in Italy, canonical law prevailed over Roman law. Only since the middle of the fifteenth century Roman or imperial law was elevated to renewed importance in connection with the rapidly growing humanism.

The same epoch which brought the new sciences of medicine and law into prominence caused a notable change in the ecclesiastical study of theology as well as in its preparatory course. In northern France during the eleventh century scholasticism developed, in some of the more noted ecclesiastical schools, that science in which the newly awakening thought of European Christianity tried to come to terms with the doctrines of the church and to justify them before human reason. Dialectics now became the glorified form of all science. Theology left the simple study of the Bible of former centuries and turned to logical analysis of church dogmas. The new science immediately drew strangers, especially Englishmen and Germans, in great numbers to France, and hence it became quickly popular everywhere. Abelard taught in Paris, at about 1100, before a great concourse of students from all countries. He taught theology and dialectics according to the new method. In the course of the twelfth century there was made a valuable addition to this study, to wit, acquaintance with the most important philosophical writings of Aristotle. Philosophical study now made rapid strides forward, and during the thirteenth century, through Albertus Magnus and Thomas of Aquino, the abiding form of scholasticism was developed in which church creeds and Aristotelian philosophy appeared as the two halves of human knowledge, supplementing each other. Aristotle became the philosopher of the church.

By this turn not only was theology made an extended object of instruction with new and rich contents, but profane studies also were changed essentially. The place of grammar was assumed by dialectics or logic, which became the most important of the seven liberal arts, and between trivium and quadrivium there entered, as a new branch of