expense of the order. Pope Urban VI, in 1366, advised, soon after the foundation of the University of Prague, the Bohemian monasteries of the Benedictines, Augustinians, and Præmonstratensians to send members of their orders to Prague; and he further decreed that the priors of the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians, and Carmelites in Bohemia should engage a sufficient number of qualified teachers of theology for their order houses in Prague.

To the monastery, cathedral, and foundation schools came, during this period, a fourth kind of secondary institutions, the Latin city schools, to which we shall refer later.

The courses of all these "particular" or secondary schools differed greatly in the various institutions. As has been mentioned before, some of these schools reached with their theological instruction into the course of the university. Generally they undertook a larger or smaller part of the course in liberal arts. Some of them may have restricted themselves to the elements of Latin. Well organized schools of the later period, like those of the city of Nuremberg, and the St. Sebaldus school of Vienna, show a limitation in their courses of study which, in the light of our modern experience, seems very wise. Their pupils first received a careful instruction in Latin, and, in the upper grades, a kind of foretaste (Vorgeschmack) of higher education through the study of an elementary course in logic and rhetoric. Such schools, leading over into a course of liberal arts in the university, approached the limit of the baccalaureate degree, and thus were true preparatory schools.

However, the relation of the particular schools to the university was, generally speaking, not that of a prescribed preparatory institution. They offered instruction as far as the conditions of each school would permit, and left it to the student to utilize as much of it as he would, or to apply it in whatever way he could. From the biography of Thomas Platter and others (in Raumer's Geschichte der Pädagogik, I. Supplement) it will be seen how many traveling scholars rambled from one school to another. These young men, when occasion offered, entered the priesthood, or if not, grew old or perished in their unfinished state (Scholarenthum). It was possible in that period for an ambitious student to obtain also outside of a university the knowledge. offered there. Besides theological lecture courses arranged by the Church itself, voluntary foundations of that kind were not rare. In Hamburg, which, geographically, lay somewhat aside from the territory of the German universities, the cathedral school taught not only grammar, logic, and rhetoric, but also philosophy. Furthermore, an ecclesiastic of that city, Magister Johannes Vrietze, established in 1408 a fund for the purpose of maintaining a theological lecture course, and secured for the professor the right to give academic disputations, engaging and paying to that end four preachers to take active part in these exercises. Thus it was made possible to the clergy of the diocese to pass through a complete theological course without leaving the city. This, however,

happened at a time when other Hamburg students lived at the University of Prague "for the purpose of studying." (Meyer, Hamburgisches Schul- und Unterrichtswesen.) In a similar manner, in 1415, some Augustinian monasteries, situated in the north and northeast of Germany, resorted to a makeshift by establishing an ambulatory university, which remained a year in every monastery of that section, and to which each sent a brother. The subjects of instruction were grammar, logic, philosophy, and theology. (Paulsen, Gelehrter Unterricht, I, page 28.)

On the other hand it became customary to regard the attendance at a "particular" or secondary school as the natural preparation for study in the university. This was the case with most of the scholars whose lives Muther describes (Aus dem Universitäts- und Gelehrtenleben im Zeitalter der Reformation). Their course may be considered typical for the Middle Ages. Among them was Hieronymus Schürpf, who attended the monastery school of his native city, St. Gall, and there followed the "grammatical course;" then he went to Basel to the university. It is well known that Martin Luther as a boy visited the school at Mansfeld, in which the elements of Latin were taught, and after his fourteenth year of age the schools of Magdeburg and Eisenach; in letters from Eisenach he praises the grammatical instruction of his teacher. Eighteen years old, in 1501, he went to the University of Erfurt. His further course of study may finish the picture of a Middle Age course of instruction. At the university he studied, besides the Latin authors, dialectics, physics, and ethics; i. e., the philosophy of the course in liberal arts. After two years he became baccalaureus, and master after two more years. In later years he acquired, as is well known, the degree of Doctor of Divinity.

5. Latin city schools.-The exclusively ecclesiastical education offered in universities and church schools was supplemented by a secular form of education in the cities after the first attempt at such an education during the chivalric era. Here the German culture found new centers when, during the first part of the thirteenth century, court life began to decline. Poetry itself came from the castles of the noblemen to the circumscribed territory of the civil communities; the minstrel song became the master song (Meistergesang). The German cities, having had their rise in the thirteenth century, saw in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a period of splendid development of power and importance in all activities of life. An increased desire for education followed as a matter of course. It was met occasionally in the patrician houses of people of wealth in the same manner which had been customary among the nobles-that is, by private tutors. For the majority of people in search for education, however, a desire for the establishment of schools became quite urgent. To this we may attribute the existence of Latin city schools, which have been mentioned before. They were called town or parochial schools. Built in proximity to the

parish churches of the cities, they were intended to offer to the citizens at least the elements of intellectual culture.

Also practical needs urged the establishment of schools. The relations of the cities, towns, or burgs with the outside world made necessary written communications of various kinds. For the interior administration likewise, documents, minutes of proceedings, records, and accounts had to be made and kept. In private life of these growing communities also the art of writing became a necessity, as records of contracts and donations, etc., had to be kept. Those who conducted this business during the first part of the Middle Ages were ecclesiastics. It was very natural that the administrative authorities of cities looked toward making themselves self-dependent. Therefore, not only secretaries became necessary who knew how to read and write and who understood Latin, but the members of the various boards and councils who had a part in the administration of public affairs found it most advisable to possess knowledge and skill in these arts. Lastly, in commerce and trade the possession of these arts became more and more urgent. The ecclesiastical schools in churches and monasteries, it is true, offered such instruction, but the rapid development of the towns and cities which took place during the thirteenth century soon proved them to be insufficient for existing needs.

The clergy had not the slightest inclination to comply with the new desire. Hence city authorities themselves were obliged to take the establishment of new schools into their own hands. In Cologne, city schools are mentioned in documents dating back to 1234, but the time of general establishment of such schools seems to begin at the middle of the century. Lübeck had been founded only a hundred years before that time (1143). But the territory of the burghers' dwellings had extended rapidly between the bishop's palace and the citadel, so that up to 1250 four parochial churches had to be erected aside from the cathedral. It was only a consequence of this development that, in 1252, the city authorities desired to increase the school facilities, and they determined upon the opening of a new institution near the market church in the middle of the city proper. They claimed that for little boys the way to the cathedral school was too far and too dangerous, situated as it was at the end of the city. The establishment was approved by the clerical authority, as well as ten years later the estab lishment of a second school in connection with another church of the city, that of St. Jacob's, which was still more distant from the cathedral. Two more schools, at St. Peters and St. Egidians, were opened a little later.

In Hamburg the opening of a city school was contemporary with the expansion of the city territory. In the new part of the city, at the harbor, the congregation of St. Nicolai was formed. This, too, wished to have a school besides the old cathedral school. The permission was granted by the Pope in 1281, to whom the city authorities had addressed

the request, but the definite establishment was made possible only after settling a dispute, which lasted through eight years, with the headmaster of the cathedral school. The city council of Breslau was granted permission to establish a school at St. Magdalena in the year 1267. The city children had until then to take their way across the Oder River, because the cathedral school was situated on the opposite side of the river. The distance, as the authorities complained, was far, the state of the bridges bad, and the passage dangerous, especially for the little ones, on account of the people, vehicles, and horses crowding one another in passing over. The new school was located within the city limits, as well as another one established in 1293 at St. Elizabeth's Church. Similar establishments in other cities were numerous in the century referred to; also in the two following centuries. The existence of Latin city schools may easily be proved by documentary evidence through the whole German Empire. At the close of the Middle Ages no German town worth mentioning was without a school supported by civil authorities.

The necessity leading to the establishment of parochial or city schools was deeply felt by the city authorities, as has been stated. The city council (Stadt-Rath) everywhere acted as the body representing the community, and expressed the need of such schools in its own and the citizens' interest. The council shunned no trouble or expense to get the approval of the church authorities, and persisted in the struggle with the clergy when approval was withheld. For, as has been mentioned, there were abundant causes for conflicts with the clergy, especially with the local clergy. In the chapters of the cathedrals and prebendary churches the "scholasticus" (a clergyman to whom the principalship of the school was intrusted) had gained a dominant position since the twelfth century, and upon this influential priest devolved not only the supervision over all the schools of the diocese, but also the right to determine the distribution of their income. The new schools which the city councils intended to establish seemed to injure the prerogatives of the priest. Therefore the secular authori ties were obliged to wrest the right of establishing such school, first, from the "scholasticus," sometimes from another person who made similar claims, such as an abbot of a monastery. The contest in many cities was carried on with great vigor. It sometimes happened that the "refractory city authority," or the entire city, was excommunicated, which action was answered by the city council by expelling the "obstinate clergy" from the city. Usually a compromise was effected, some years after the struggle, by higher ecclesiastical authorities, that is, bishops and the Pope, and the dispute terminated in granting the permission to establish city schools, in lien of which the council again confirmed the privileges of the clergy of the town, perhaps also expressly promised to prevent a diminution of the revenues of the "scholasticus" or general educational director.

But in spite of these contentions the instruction in the city schools was no other than that offered in the ecclesiastical schools. With the establishment of city schools no reform in matter or method of teaching was intended. It did not occur to the council or anyone else at that time that matter or method of instruction in schools neeaed to be different from those in church schools. "The city schools were simply parallel institutions to the church schools." (Specht, page 249.) In the beginning, the establishment of advanced, grammar, and secondary schools was strictly reserved to the clergy of the town, who were also intrusted with the teaching of singing, owing to its importance for divine service in the principal churches. Hence these city schools may be said to have been elementary Latin schools. Later this limitation, as well as the ecclesiastical supervision, fell into disuse, as the example of the schools of Nuremberg of the fifteenth century shows.

6. Schools for reading and writing.-In the same cities in which thus, since the middle of the thirteenth century, the citizens tried to acquire at least the elements of a Latin education, purely German schools. sprang into existence about a hundred years later (1350). These were the schools known in the history of popular education under the name "Reading and writing schools" of the Middle Ages. They were also called German schools, in contrast to the Latin schools of those times. During the first part of the Middle Ages Latin was the only language. of public judicial action in Germany, but in the second part of that period the vulgar tongue began to claim a place beside it. In the thirteenth century the first great law collections or codes were made in the German language; the "Saxon" and the "Suabian Mirror" date from that time, as do also municipal laws, guild statutes, and other codes all composed in German. In other documents the people began to employ the native language. As early as 1281 Rudolph of Hapsburg ordered a "public peace" (Landfrieden) in German. Further more, an increased need of education became urgent among the masses of the people. The desire to learn reading and writing became quite common, and the possession of these elementary facilities can be proven to have been very extensive from about the second half of the fourteenth century. In 1382 a citizen of Lübeck sent libelous letters to a councilor in Stettin, which he had nailed on the church door of the city, evidently for the general cognizance of the inhabitants. In 1400 it was the custom of the German merchants of Novgorod, in Russia, to affix at their front steps the names of Russian debtors who had proved themselves defrauders. In 1442 during the convention of the Hansa, held in Stralsund, it was resolved that certain regulations in the various cities belonging to the League should be brought to the knowledge of the public by placarding them at the city halls, "so that everybody might know how to avoid damage." At the same time (1443), in Brunswick, the members of the trade guilds could read, which is seen from