and the Jesuit Canisius published a catechism which was much used. In Bavaria Duke Albrecht V framed school regulations which placed schoolmasters under supervision, and prescribing instruction in the Catholic creed and in reading and writing. At another occasion he admonished the clergy of his duchy to establish German schools. Hence to a certain degree, the Protestant movement in behalf of lower schools was imitated by a similar move on Catholic territory.

(b) THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. (1) National and new education : Katichius and Comenius and the classical schools.—The movements which the Reformation had produced continued in Germany until the end of the sixteenth century. It was not until the beginning of the seventeenth century that German civilization entered upon new ways. National aspirations came to the surface at that time. The educated commenced to perceive something alien in the humanism in schools and universities, and attempts were made to establish a purely German education. As an indication of this desire the formation of the "Fruitbearing Society" in Weimar (in 1617) may be mentioned. Its object was the cultivation of the German language. Nobles and citizens worked together to this end; the nobles, after having been almost strangers to national life for a long time, came again in contact with public life during the sixteenth century, by joining their forces with the increasing power of the princely sovereigns, while the society of denizens of the cities still enjoyed the fruit of its great political power gained during the previous centuries.

Another change was caused by modern science which in that period. experienced a great impetus in all the nations of the South and West--in Italy, France, Holland, and England. In these countries, humanism, although itself of mere literary tendency, led to a new rise of science. Because abandoning the culture of the Middle Ages, humanism liberated at the same time scientific thought which had lain in the bondage of Aristotle and religious belief. The battle against scholasticism. fought by the humanists in the interest of classical languages and literature, at the same time delivered science from the oppressive authority with which Aristotle had burdened it. A number of men, for the most part living in the time before and after 1600, introduced a new science. Copernicus and Kepler created a new astronomy, Galileo a new physics; in Descartes was found the first philosopher of the new science, in Bacon its great methodician.

Germany did not keep pace with this progress, although it gave the first two names to this list of learned men. The German nation remained behind others in science, and soon also in regard to national wealth. At the German universities, after the Reformation, Aristotle continued to reign supreme. The reformers, it is true, had banished his scholastic commentaries from their instruction, but the contents of the philosopher's own books remained the only and unassailable basis of all instruction in science. When in 1569, Peter Ramus,

who saw his life's task in combating the doctrines of Aristotle, came to Heidelberg, and the ducal government wanted to employ him as lecturer on ethics, the faculty refused to accept him, "because his manner of teaching would not agree with that of Aristotle, whose philosophy was acknowledged to be the best in Germany and in all of Europe. That Greek philosopher remained the undisputed authority in university instruction until the end of the seventeenth century. Modern science passed over Germany, and the German people have only recovered from this neglect during the current century. Nevertheless, influences arising from this evolution could not be entirely ignored. It is a noticeable fact, that of the two greatest pedagogical reformers of the seventeenth century, Ratichius and Comenius, the latter received his strongest impetus from Roger Bacon. In connection with the tendency toward nationalizing culture (Germanizing it, as it were), the doctrine of independent science caused some noteworthy changes in the advanced education of Germany which, however, did not outlast the frightful ravages of the thirty years' war. The period from 1600 to 1648 deserves to be characterized briefly.

The new ideas found expression in the reform plans of Ratichius (1571–1635), and in the works of Comenius (1592–1671), and were advocated by a few of their disciples. In the field of higher education they intended to lead youth quickly to science and a knowledge of things themselves. Humanism, it seemed to them, gave only a knowl edge of words, books, and opinions, and when it did lead to knowledge of realities it dragged the student on such a roundabout road that he hardly reached the end. Therefore they offered new methods and new books for the study of languages by means of which the learning of classical languages (as yet the vehicles of all knowledge) could at least be shortened. "The schools," says Comenius, "do not show the things themselves as they really are, but teach what one or another, or a third party or a tenth, thinks and writes, so that at last the perfection of knowledge consists in knowing different opinions of many men about many things." (Didact. magua, XVIII, page 23.) He himself tried to compile in several of his Latin books words and expressions and group them so completely and conveniently that they might furnish in a short time with little trouble an easy, agreeable, and safe transition to the authors who treat about things themselves." (Janua reserata, praef. sec. 11.) The humanists saw clearly what turn things were taking. They complained that the reformers would take out of the hands of youth those authors who had been teachers of culture and oratory, and intended them to dispute philosophical and theological questions, just as in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The representatives of the old school had complained about the young scholastics who, full of dialectic fancies, had thrown aside the classics.

However, at the time, a complete defeat of humanism was not accomplished. The ideas of the reformers found occasional admissions in

new school regulations, and the books of Comenius were used in several places. But the classics remained the principal part of secondary and higher education; only Greek was gradually pressed into the background, and Latin became the dominant study. Soon Greek was studied only as far as theologians needed it, and the lectures on Greek were confined to the New Testament. The Greek-Latin school of the Reformation became the Latin school of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

(2) Modern French education-academies for the nobles.-After the thirty years' war the general situation for the system of advanced education had radically changed. The denizens of cities were depressed and had to work hard to maintain their bare existence. The formerly influential citizens were obliged to leave to the nobles the dominating position in the nation. For the nobility there arose a new model of a splendid civilization which they tried to imitate, as in the sixteenth century antiquity had been the model. In France, under Louis XIV, the State, represented by royalty, assumed such power and perfection, developed such dazzling forms of life in the higher classes of society, and such a rich and flourishing literature grew up, that the German nobles sought compensation in them for what the life of their own nation could not offer them after the devastations of the terrible war. Now began the period of French influence whose superiority was not to be broken for a hundred years. With French civilization there entered Germany those new sciences which had been developed by western nations-philosophy, mathematics, physics, and the new science of law. Of course they must not be considered in that theoretical abstraction in which they are elements of education to us, but in their relation to practice and in connection with the supplementary sciences depending upon them. Mathematics and physics aroused interest in their application to technology and science of war; and, besides, the proper science of government, history and geography, statistics. genealogy, and heraldics were cultivated.

The ideal of education of German nobles was accordingly composed of the knowledge of French and other modern languages, and of various accomplishments, seemingly indispensable for a nobleman educated according to French ideals, such as the arts of courtly conduct and of physical accomplishments as dancing, fencing, riding, etc. Such an education, however, could not be given by the old humanistic gymnasia and universities. Therefore special schools for young nobles were established, the so called "knights' academies" (Ritterakademien), of which some have been preserved up to date without being distinguished at present in their course of study or methods from other secondary schools. They originally corresponded in their organization to a complete gymnasium with some higher or academic studies added. Greek and Hebrew were omitted in these schools; in their place, beside the indispensable Latin, modern languages, French, Italian, also Spanish

and English, and the new sciences were taught and careful instruction in all "knightly" arts was given. The necessity for a special education of the nobility having existed in earlier times, similar schools could be found occasionally also before that time, but the flourishing period of academies for the nobility was the time after the great war. Thus, for instance, in 1653 in Colberg, 1655 in Lüneburg, 1682 in Vienna, 1687 in Wolffenbüttel, institutions of that kind were established; others came into existence later.

For this reason the education of the nobility was segregated from the intellectual life of other classes. The latter, as before, found its culmination in the classical schools and universities, but had a pitiful existence; its representatives were scoffed and given the term "pedants," while on the other hand the sciences and their representatives were called "gallants." Only toward the end of the century the new education approached and entered the old universities and preparatory schools.

(3) Instruction in German-Duke Ernest (the pious) of Gotha.-It was important for so called German instruction of the seventeenth century that Ratichius and Comenius and their partisans demanded a better cultivation of the vernacular; first, in the classical school, the pupils should not enter upon Latin "before they could read German fluently, write and speak it." This demand was not superfluous, because the old method was still in vogue, according to which the pupils were, soon after the simplest primary work in German was completed, introduced to a foreign language; sometimes they were taught reading in Latin first. Instead of this, it was urged, good instruction in German should be given in the lower grades, and it was repeatedly demanded that the pupils of Latin schools should learn grammar not in Latin, but in German first. For this reason, for instance, the native language was taught in the three lower grades of the school which Ratichius established in Kathen, that is, reading and writing of German in the first two, and German grammar in the third grade, for those who intended to study Latin. This reenforced and independent German instruction offered the benefit of a purely German education to the people, since the classical schools in the cities were the common or burgher schools in their lower grades. The purely German schools, not connected with classical schools, did even more in that direction, for they offered a complete and methodical instruction in the native language exclusively. The educational reformers intended to give German education dignity and self-dependence. This education, they claimed, should no longer remain in uncertain dependence upon classical schools, but be represented partly to a larger extent in exclusively German schools, partly serve as a basis for classical education. For this reason in the school organism, which Comenius planned in his "Didactica magna,” home education by the mother was followed by a school of the mother tongue ("schola vernacula"), which he wished established in every community, and which should be attended from the sixth to the twelfth year by all

children of the community, also by those who were intended for higher studies. Upon this common school should follow the classical studies in gymnasium and university.

In this plan, it will be noticed, Comenius advocated a general compulsory education. He demanded that all men, poor as well as rich, should partake of this instruction. Of course he saw that the times were not ripe for the realization of his idea. In many places, so he himself affirmed, no schools at all were established; in other places provision was made only for the children of the better-situated classes. But this advice resulted in the fact that in some small States welldisposed princes decreed compulsory education for all children. For existing schools Comenius, following the tendency of the time, demanded the introduction of modern sciences; the child should become "acquainted mentally with the realities surrounding it." In the "schola vernacula" the course should therefore contain, beside religion and singing, reading, writing, and arithmetic; also a general view of his tory, a little cosmography, and a description of trades and arts.

In the Duchy of Weimar the principles of the reformers found their application as early as 1619, where, through the agency of Superintendent Kromayer, a disciple of Ratichius, a new school system was organized. All children, boys as well as girls, should, "as much as possible," attend school. More important, however, is that which a few decades later was done in the Duchy of Gotha by Duke Ernest, the pious. The advancement and organization of public instruction in his State is by far the most important action taken during the seventeenth century. The duke, immediately after his accession to the throne (1640), ordered Andreas Reyher, also a partisan of the educa tional reformers, to prepare a plan for a new.school system, the socalled "Schulmethodus," which appeared in 1642. In this document was ordered what should be done in the whole State with boys and girls in villages, and with the "lowest groups" of the school children in the cities in regard to German education. In three grades, following one upon the other, religion, hymns, reading, writing, arithmetic, and natural sciences were to be taught. Religious instruction is specially emphasized, but also reading and writing in German, which is to proceed to exercises in composition. In the sciences the children are to learn to measure time by the hourglass or sundial, the rising and setting of sun and moon, the cardinal points, plants, and animals; furthermore, ecclesiastical and secular things, as, for instance, the Thuringian country and what is found in it, "as trenches, roads, offices, hospitals; something about authorities, judges, merchants' business," etc.; and lastly, a little instruction in geometry and physics. General compulsory education was decreed. The parents should send their children to school from the fifth to the thirteenth year of age; in cases of withholding children from school the parents were to be punished with fines, which fines should be employed to support poor pupils. The schools were to be kept open in winter and summer. The