In view of the recent development and improvement of such schools in France, these views appear to need some modification. The question whether the highest form of practical skill can only be learned in the trade shop must depend on the actual state of apprenticeship. If this is extinct, as is, for instance, said to be the case in our building trades, the shop can hardly be said to be any longer a school of practical workmanship. French schools do not, as has been shown, profess to supersede the shop, but it may be claimed for them that they not only tend to maintain the highest standard in the methods of workshop practice, but that they have a powerful influence in improving these methods themselves, inasmuch as the work of a school apprenticeship is conducted, not by rule of thumb, or mere tradition, but in the light of the best and latest scientific principles. In instituting the écoles pratiques the French authorities have been inspired by a conviction that it is for the interest of the country that not only foremen and managers of works, but artisans as a class, should pass through a systematic course of school training. The importance attached to the formation of a distinct body of picked workmen is further shown by the recent institution of the school at Cluny for candidates whose mathematical and scientific knowledge is unequal to the demands of the écoles d'arts et métiers. In England, though workmen have many places of supplementary instruction open to them, they have little or no opportunity of a complete industrial education. So far as the question of general education is concerned, it is a striking fact that the time devoted at Voiron, one of the écoles nationales professionnelles, in which the principle of apprenticeship has been shown to be recognized, to purely literary subjects, is actually greater than that given to the same purpose by an English technical school like the People's Palace Day School. It can hardly be doubted that our present attitude toward the whole question of industrial education is a somewhat illogical one. While in theory we forbid the employment of public money for trade instruction in schools, such money is, in practice, spent by municipal bodies for the support of trade classes and institutions restricted to the use of trade apprentices. If the history of the recent progress in French technical instruction has any lesson to teach, it would appear to be that the time has arrived for us also to adopt a bolder and more consistent policy as regards industrial education, and by giving greater prominence to practical, special, and scholastic, as opposed to theoretical, scientific, and supplemental requirements, to render our system of technical instruction, so far as it is intended to help us to meet foreign trade competition, “un enseignement véritablement professionnel." ADMISSION OF FOREIGN STUDENTS TO THE FRENCH UNIVERSITIES. The recent movement for facilitating the admission of foreign students to the French universities has been considered in previous reports. A summary of the principal measures is here presented, bringing the account to the present date. The movement began in Paris and was publicly advocated at the international congress on secondary and superior instruction held in connection with the Paris Exposition of 1889. The great hindrance to foreign students arose from the fact that their diplomas had no weight in France. It was proposed at the congress that this difficulty should be overcome by an official order establishing conditions of equivalence for foreign diplomas. Nothing came of these proposals until 1895, when Professor Furber, of Chicago, took up the matter in the interests of American students and urged it directly upon the minister of public instruction. In his memorial to the minister1 the liberal course of the German universities was contrasted with the exclusive policy of the French system. The special difficulty in the way of American students was stated to be the compulsory examinations. These, to quote the memorial, "when frequent, not only tie the student more closely to set lines of study than is advantageous for the American, but, on account of the strangeness of the language, during the early portion of his course are doubly arduous. An arrangement similar in principle to that which the French faculties of medicine have already adopted, whereby a foreigner, under certain circumstances, may take all his tests en bloc, would relieve him of every obstacle in this direction. This, and possibly a designation of the American colleges whose degrees would be accepted as an equiv alent for the diploma of the French lycée, are the principal concessions the American student would desire." Soon after the presentation of the memorial a meeting was called at the Sorbonne (June 26) to consider the subject. The meeting was remarkable for the number and distinction of the men who took part therein. An article from the pen of M. Bréal, which appeared the same month in the Journal des Débats, greatly increased interest in the matter, and as a result of these several efforts a committee of leading university men was formed, under the name of the Franco-American Committee, for the express purpose of giving effect to Mr. Furber's proposal. An American advisory committee was also formed, under the presidency of Prof. Simon Newcomb. This committee formulated their views as to the importance of freer access for American students to French universities in a series of resolutions, and recommended the two following measures for promoting the end in view: (1) The acceptance by the French universities, as candidates for the doctor's degree, of Americans holding the bachelor's degree from any institution of learning of good standing in the United States; this degree being accepted as equivalent of that of the French lycées. (2) Owing to the disadvantage under which the student would labor, especially in the early part of his course, on account of his lack of familiarity with the French language, it is suggested that, instead of the frequent rigorous examinations required by the French system, informal ones should be instituted, the successful passage of which should not be obligatory. 'See Commissioner's Report for 1894-95, Vol. 1, pp. 305-308. For list of members, see Report for 1894-95, Vol. 1, p. 310. The committee included also, among others, W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education; Carroll D. Wright, Chief of the Labor Bureau; Andrew D. White. and the presidents of the Johns Hopkins, Yale, Harvard, Clark, Cornell, and Columbia universities, and of the University of Michigan. A committee was also formed by Americans resident in Paris with a view to foster the same work. The late Dr. Thomas W. Evans was made president of the local committee, and Dr. E. A. Crane, who still holds the position, secretary. + Report of Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, Vol. 1, pp. 310, 311. The success of these efforts is apparent in a series of official decrees modifying the requirements for foreign students who seek admission to the French universities, particularly on the lines originally suggested by Professor Furber and confirmed by the American committee. The first of these orders, issued in January, 1896, opened the French faculties of science to foreigners on liberal conditions. The full details as furnished to the office by M. Paul Melon, secretary of the Franco-American Committee, are to be found in the Report for 1895-96. It suffices to repeat that by these conditions an American student will be admitted to these faculties on his bachelor's degree, and will be permitted to choose his studies. After pursuing any scientific course a year, he can, if he wishes, apply for an examination in this branch, and if successful, obtain a certificat d'étude. Three such certificates-taken, for instance, in calculus, pure mechanies, and astronomy-will make him a licencié, and he can then secure the French doctorate upon the presentation of a satisfactory thesis. If the student has the ability, and so desires, he can discharge all three subjects the same year; or, if he prefers, he can do this in successive years, migrating, if he wishes, from one university to another, and studying at the same time whatever other subjects he may choose. It was announced at the time the decree was passed that the faculty of theology was about to make valuable concessions, and as the faculty of medicine was already opened on favorable terms to foreigners, there remained only to secure arrangements with the faculties of law and of letters. That the situation may be made clearer, a comparison of the conditions with those required for the German doctorate, which are generally understood in this country, is here quoted from the American Register (Paris) of February 1, 1896: The new decree introduces into the faculties of science all the better features of the German system, so popular with students from America. As compared with the regulations which have hitherto obtained, the decree establishes three important innovations: (1) Wide latitude in the choice of studies; (2) the liberty of migrating from one institution to another, and (3) the privilege of taking examinations either in succession or en bloc. According to the ancient system, a student was held strictly to a certain group of studies with no power of varying his programme; he was obliged to discharge his subjects simultaneously, and was without the right of removing to another faculty, except for very urgent reasons. He will now, however, be at liberty to elect to a wide extent the branches he will follow; he will be able to change his place of residence, pursuing courses in one city and another. These two features are preeminently German. The third, relative to the order of examination, is French; and is such, it would seem, as should give to the French system a possible advantage. In Germany, in order to secure a doctorate, the student first submits his thesis and takes his examinations afterwards. He receives the doctorate or nothing. In France, on the contrary, the examinations coming first, the student secures a certificat d'étude for every study he discharges, and the degree of licencié when he has completed three. He thus, it will be seen, receives independent credit for every step he takes-a consideration of importance to those who may be interrupted in their course. If the student is an able man, and thoroughly prepared, he can secure his license in a year by carrying three studies simultaneously; or he may, if he prefers, pursue them in succession, traveling from one university center to another, and following at the same time a variety of courses, the doctorate being open to him at any time after he has taken his license. At the German universities, again, three years' study are required before the doctorate is given. In France it may be obtained in one, provided the candidate can within this time secure his license and have his thesis ready to sustain. Be it said, however, at this juncture, that though the minimum of time which the French require may be less, the value of their doctorate is equal to that conferred by any German university. The French doctorate demands a decidedly high grade of research. But this need not deter our better class of students. There are many whose abilities will be equal to the test, while the right of discharging their examinations first and leaving the doctor thesis to later years or riper powers confers a privilege to be prized both by students who may doubt their intellectual maturity and by those who for any reason are unable to spend a great amount of time abroad. Both classes, after a not too lengthy stay in France, will be able to secure the license, a degree of excellent repute, returning home, if they so choose, to prepare their theses at their leisure. The satisfaction caused by the favorable action in respect to the faculty of sciences was considerably lessened at the report of a proposition in the superior council to close the Paris faculty of medicine to foreigners. The prospect was the mere depressing because this faculty above all others attracts foreign students. The course of the council, it was believed, was influenced, if not wholly dictated, by the opposition of French students to their foreign compeers-an opposition at marked variance with the cordial welcome accorded strangers by the students of other faculties. The representations by the committees interested in the international movement brought a statement from the ministry of the cause for the proposed change in the medical faculty to the following effect: Despite the great increase of equipment and accommodation recently made for medical students in Paris, it was found impossible to meet the requirements of the native students, and consequently the authorities entertained the proposition of distributing a portion of the foreign clientèle among the provincial faculties until the facilities at Paris could be further increased. It was asserted that through the advance made in the last few years the provincial faculties rival in many cases those of Paris; and, further, that students subject to the new measure would be beginners, to which class America scarcely contributes. Rarely does an American enter a professional school of Europe for any other purpose than to pursue a specialty which he has already begun. The relation of foreign students to the faculties of medicine was finally regulated by a decree of July 21, 1896, which obliges all foreign students aspiring to the diploma of doctor of medicine to submit to precisely the same conditions as French students. For foreigners who do not aspire to this 'See Report of Commissioner for 1895-96, Vol. 1, p. 634. diploma, which permits them to practice medicine in France, the facilities already extended will be continued and even increased. Such students will, however, only be entitled to a special diploma intended solely for foreigners and granting no rights to practice in France. This favorable close to what seemed for a time an unfriendly course shows the influence of the committees that are seeking to promote scholastic relations between our own country and France. The last act by which the Government affirms its sanction of the efforts of the committees is the decree of July 21, 1897, empowering the universities to institute in any faculty a special doctorate which shall be open to natives and to foreigners. This title is quite independent of the degrees established by the State, and confers none of the rights and privileges attached by law and regulation to those degrees, nor can it be substituted for them. 1 In pursuance of this decree, the University of Paris has instituted. the degree of Doctor of the University of Paris in the faculties of letters, of sciences, and of medicine. The decision bears date April 1, 1898, and is to take effect at the close of the scholastic year 1897-98. Foreign aspirants for the new doctorate are received on the diplomas of their own colleges, the faculty in each case reserving to itself the right to determine the value of the same. The faculty of letters requires the candidate to spend at least four semesters in study, part of which may be accomplished in one of the French universities or in any foreign university, at the discretion of the faculty. The faculty of sciences requires a year's study to be passed in residence; in the faculty of medicine the doctorate can only be obtained by candidates who have pursued the courses and passed the examinations of the faculty. It may be added that these arrangements benefit men and women students alike, as the French universities are open to both sexes. The full text of the order is as follows: THE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS. After citing the decree of July 21, 1897, the order proceeds as follows: I. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. ART. 1. A doctorate of the University of Paris is created. ART. 2. Aspirants for this degree must be enrolled on a special registry at the secretariate of the faculty or the school of the university in which they wish to pursue their studies. At the time of enrollment they must present their diplomas, special certificates (attestations d'études), or scientific degrees. They must complete the required term of study as prescribed hereafter. They must pass the public examinations. ART. 3. They must submit to the rules and discipline of the university. -48 |