number of representative colleges and universities are given in detail; also a discussion of the general considerations which should guide in forming such courses. Some of these considerations are analogous to those which the writer holds should govern the selection of studies in the secondary course. "The very best undergraduate preparation for graduate work in astronomy is not so much astronomy itself as a sound and sufficient training in the higher mathematics and thorough and long-continued work in the physical laboratory" (p. 890).

Systems of text book supply.-An analysis of the principal features of the different State text-book laws is given in Chapter XIX. From this it will be seen that near a score of States prescribe State uniformity of text books for terms of years varying from three to six. Local uniformity is secured in a considerable number of other States for similar periods. One State, California, publishes books for use in the common schools. Provision for use of books free of cost to pupils is made in more than a score of States, either by a general requirement or upon popular vote of a district or a town.

The advantages of State uniformity are: (1) Economy in purcliasing, (2) avoidance of friction in local boards over text-books, and (3) the better facilities of State boards for examination of competing works. The gratuitous supply to pupils is advocated as cutting off the annoyance of delay in procuring books through parents and as costing less to the community as a whole, and also the increase in attendance on the part of the very poor, who shrink from incurring the expense of school books and likewise from the confession of poverty by accepting books "provided for indigent children." On the other hand, not all admit the economy of purchase of books exclusively adopted for a State, and some object to a prohibition of change within a fixed term as discour aging progress; while as to free text-books, it is urged that the families lose the benefit of ownership and that the transmission of books through a promiscuous succession of pupils is unsanitary. In the course of the discussion practice tends more toward broad uniformity in the thinly populated States and to providing free books for pupils.

Experimental study of children.—In Chapters XXI and XXV Mr. MacDonald has brought together the results of the movement known as child study and kindred branches of investigation. This movement is largely due to the labors of Dr. G. Stanley Hall, so far as this country is concerned, and it may be said that it is mainly confined to this country. If the result of so much labor seems small, it must be said in its behalf that in a new field of experimental research the first efforts are expended in the trial of new methods. These efforts are accordingly for the most part gropings until fruitful methods are happily discovered. And, in the case of the normal standards of growth in children, as Mr. MacDonald himself says, such normal standards are not yet fixed and must be generalized from a vast number of measurements under all conditions and with all manner of

children, rich and poor, urban and rural, white children, and other children of different nationalities and heredities. In the case of an application of the scientific method to the study of children neither purely physical methods nor purely psychological ones will suffice; for the child is a self-activity that organizes matter as its instrument of theory and practice. In these chapters we see the efforts, more or less unconscious, to combine the two methods, the physical methods, that deal with matter and explain its motions by external causes, and the spiritual ones, that deal with self-activity and explain its changes by purposes or intelligent motives and will.

Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines.- With regard to the Spanish colonies and protectorates, a policy of liberal provision for education commends itself as the natural course. It is assumed that when the Government of the United States acquires additional territories, that it desires to assimilate their populations and make them capable of selfgovernment with as much expedition as feasible. It has been said that the child of an American citizen, in a favorable locality, between the years of 1 and 20 passes through all the stages of culture between the savage and the highest civilization. However this may be, the school in the course of eight years of elementary studies and four years of secondary or higher study fits the youth for understanding and using the instruments of civilization and brings him into a proper sense of the ideals reverenced by his fellow-men.

A people is civilized when it has formed institutions for itself which enable each individual to profit by the industry of all his fellowcitizens; when it enables each individual to profit by the experience. and wisdom, the observations, and the thoughts of his fellow-citizens; finally, when it encourages each individual to enter upon a rational selfactivity by which he contributes, either through his industry or through his observation and his thoughts, to the benefit of the people with whom he lives.

This, too, will apply not only to the highest forms, but it will indicate the degree of advancement all along the line, from the lowest grade to the highest. If one nation allows one-half of its citizens to grow up illiterate and in consequence not able to profit, through means of books, by the experience of the race, nor enter into the thoughts of their fellow-citizens, that nation is surely inferior to another that gives these privileges to three-fourths of its people. So, too, a nation that can earn only 20 cents per day for each inhabitant is inferior by so much in its civilization to the nation that can earn 30, or 40, or 50 cents a day for each.

In the case of a population like that of Spanish America it is evident that special attention should be given in the public schools to the elements of industries. Not agriculture so much as the mechanic arts and the arts of transportation should be taught.

Civilization enables man to conquer nature and make it his servant;

to command the services of heat, light, electricity, and of all inorganic elements; to command the plant world of vegetation for his uses; to command also the animal kingdom for the same service; in short, to command the services of nature for food, clothing, and shelter. Besides this control over nature, civilization should give man access to the history of his race, access to its literature, access to its scientific discoveries, access to its various inventions, and, above all, access to its moral and religious ideals. Civilization, in short, should give man command of the earth and likewise command of the experience of the entire race. This shows the goal ahead of us and not merely our partial realizations.

A tribal civilization is low as compared with the civilization of Great Britain or France or Germany. There is no tribal civilization which could compare with these nations in its knowledge of the uses of minerals, chemical substances, and the natural forces, such as heat, light, electricity, gravitation. No tribe can possibly command the complete. resources of the world as regards its vegetable and its animal life, the products of agriculture and the mines. The reason for this is that the tribe is too small, and the tribe, from the very nature of its constitution, can not cooperate with other tribes or receive their help. It stops at a view of nature which is a mere superstition. The tribe can climb only a little way up the ladder which leads to the control and command of all substances and forces of nature. Consequently the tribe can not participate, to any great degree, either in the productive industry of the whole world or in its intellectual investigations and discoveries.

Other forms of civilization above the tribe take rank as higher or lower according to the degree in which they realize this ideal of conquest over nature and complete intercommunication with the rest of the world. No nation that lacks a great commerce can be so high in civilization as Great Britain or France. No nation that lacks railroad communication can be so high in civilization as the United States. No nation that lacks steam engines to perform its drudgery can be so high as the nation which has these things.

There is another criterion by which to try a civilization, and it is a very important one. A nation may be very far advanced in its ability to control nature and to command access to the wisdom of the race. But it may do this only for some classes of its citizens, and not for all. Such a nation is not so highly advanced in its civilization as one that allows each of its citizens to participate in the product of the whole. The nation that gives schools to the humblest classes of its people as well as to its highest classes, and the nation that allows the humblest people to govern themselves under just laws, is a higher nation than one which separates the ruling class into a government apart from and above the mass of the people.

The highest ideal of a civilization is that of a civilization which is engaged constantly in elevating lower classes of people into participa

tion in all that is good and reasonable, and perpetually increasing at the same time their self-activity.

If we can not come into contact with lower civilizations without bringing extermination to their people, we are still far from the goal. It must be our great object to improve our institutions until we can bring blessings to lower peoples and set them on a road to rapid progress. We must take in hand their education. We must emancipate them from tribal forms and usages and train them into productive industry and individual ownership of land. We must take them out of the form of civilization that rests on tradition and mere external authority and substitute for it a civilization of the printed page, which governs by public opinion and by insight rather than by mere authority. Such a civilization we have a right to enforce on this earth. We have a right to work for the enlightenment of all peoples and to give our aid to lift them into local self-government. But local self-government can not exist where there is no basis of productive industry and booklearning.

The States in the Union which have made themselves wealthy have given most attention to the schools of the people and have always devoted a large proportion of their revenues to their support. Quite as large a proportion of the revenue of the Spanish islands must be set apart for education. Attempts have often been made in the history of the Spanish colonies to set up educational systems that rivaled those of the United States and Germany, but they have always failed after a few months or years through financial mismanagement. With revenues in the hands of fiscal agents appointed by the United States it will be easy to collect and apply a sufficiency of school funds to make it possible to provide good buildings, efficient supervision, and an excellent corps of teachers. It is assumed that the management of these islands must be left for a number of years in the hands of military governors, assisted by a corps of local officers. All proper steps will be taken to interest substantial citizens-those who possess educated intelligence or who have been successful in the management of property-to come forward and assist in restoring social order and in reestablishing business in its proper channels. Such persons as these will be invited to assist in reestablishing schools, for the attempt must not be made to make new schools take the place of the old ones. The old ones must be revived and the persons who have been employed in them must be invited to take up their work again. Spanish teachers may be assisted by superintendents who are thoroughly acquainted with the most improved methods in operation in the United States. If Congress finds it desirable to aid education in these colonies by appropriations from the Federal Treasury, it should furnish supervisors in sufficient numbers to make possible weekly visits to each of the schools in operation. Further than this, it may provide a corps of Spanish-English teachers, teachers whose native tongue is English but who are familiar with the Spanish. These teachers may be itinerant, visiting each school once per week.

They must be numerous enough to form from 5 to 10 per cent of the entire corps of teachers.

It is all important that in the reorganization of the schools in Spanish countries we do not attempt too much in the way of introducing the English language. All of the daily lessons except one should be in Spanish. The one exception should be a lesson in reading elementary English. The lesson which is given once a week by the Spanish-English teacher should be left to the regular teacher of the school for repetition during the rest of the week. If it is required that other lessons, such as arithmetic, geography, or history, be taught in English, there will be just ground for suspicion on the part of the Spanish population that it is the purpose of the United States to enforce the use of the English language in these territories. There are a few examples in the history of nations of compulsory introduction of a new language in newly acquired territories, but these have been signally unsuccessful in effecting their purpose. Of course the policy will not be considered for a moment by the United States. It is reasonable, however, that the new colonists should be taught English as the most useful of foreign languages. Their children should of course know Spanish and have pride in all the good things that belong to the history of Spain. They will be all the stronger American citizens for it. But a suspicion among the Spanish citizens that an attempt will be made to dispossess them of their Spanish tongue will make all attempts at improving their schools worse than useless.

The revival of business in its old channels and the swift taking pos. session of new avenues of business which will open to these people through their connection with the United States; the education of their children in mechanic industries, and in a knowledge of science which makes the invention of labor-saving machines possible; the education of these children in Spanish and American literature, in geog. raphy, mathematics, and history, and above all the development of a habit of reading periodicals and especially the daily newspaper, will do what is desired in the way of assimilating these people to the national standard. The newspaper, more than any other instrumentality, aids in the formation of one public opinion north and south, east and west. In the daily newspaper each inhabitant sees what the rest of his nation, in fact, what the world, is thinking about, and he contributes his own quota of thought to the settlement of the great questions of the day, and forms his opinion also in the light of the aggregate verdict of his fellow-citizens. This government by public opinion is the perfection of free government.

Mr. Packard, in Chapter XX, treats of the history of education in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines.'

The following is a table of contents to Mr. Packard's chapter, which will be useful in referring to the several topics which are treated in it.

Educational system of Cuba and Porto Rico. Three periods. Earliest period: tenth century to 1790, beginning of administration of Gen. Luis de las Casas. Sec