JAPAN.

(SHO KOKU. NIPPON.)

Constitution and Government.

THE system of government of the Japanese empire is that of an absolute monarchy. It was adopted in the year 1869, when the now ruling sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power of the Tycoon, together with that of the principal Daimios, or feudal nobles, reducing the latter to the position of simple tenants of the vast estates in their hereditary possessions. The sovereign bears the name of Supreme Lord, or Emperor; but the appellation by which he is generally known in foreign countries is the ancient title of Mikado, or 'The Venerable.'

Mikado of Japan.-Mutsu Hito, born at Yedo, Sept. 22, 1852; succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, 1867; married, Dec. 28, 1868, to Princess Haru-ko, born April 17, 1850, daughter of Prince Itchidgo.

The power of the Mikado is absolute and unlimited, in temporal as well as spiritual affairs. He acts through an executive ministry, divided, in imitation of that of France under Napoleon III., into eight departments, of the Imperial House, of Foreign Affairs, War, Navy, Finances and the Interior, Justice, Public Instruction, and Ecclesiastical Affairs. At the side of the Ministry stands the 'Sain,' or Senate, composed of thirty members, and the 'Shoïn,' or Council of State, of an unlimited number of members, both nominated by the Mikado, and consulted by him at his pleasure.

There exists no regular law of succession to the throne, but in case of the death or abdication of the Mikado, the crown devolves generally, not on his son, but on either the eldest or the most distinguished member of his house. It is not uncommon that palace intrigues settle the choice, the only condition of legality of which is that the elect should be member of the Shi Shinnô, the 'Four Imperial Relatives,' or Royal Families of Japan. The throne can be, and has frequently been, occupied by a female, who, however, is not allowed to remain single, but must seek a consort within the limits of the Shi Shinnô.

The government is at present organised on a basis which is partly European. The Mikado is, theoretically, an absolute Sovereign, who reigns and governs; but the work of government is carried on by the Great Council, which is divided into three sections

denominated Centre, Right, and Left. The Centre is composed of the Prime Minister, Vice-Prime Minister, and five advisers. The Left is made up exclusively of the Council of State, the functions of which are analogous to those of the French Conseil d'Etat, so far as the preparation and discussion of laws is concerned. The Right includes all the Ministers and Vice-Ministers of the eight departments into which the administration is divided. The Ministers, either individually or united in a Cabinet, decide all ordinary questions; but points of real importance are reserved for the Great Council, presided over by the Mikado. A Parliament was formed in 1869, with deputies selected by the provincial Governments, but it was soon dissolved, its deliberations taking no effect. The local administration in the provinces is in the hands of prefects, one of them residing in each of the 75 districts into which Japan is divided. The powers and the attributes of these prefects are far more extensive than those of any similar functionaries in Europe. There is, however, a limit to their judicial action, for they cannot carry into execution sentences involving banishment or death until they have been confirmed by the Minister of Justice.

Previous to the last change of government, which placed all power in the hands of the Mikado, a large share of administrative authority rested with the Daimios, the feudal proprietors of the soil, an official list of whose names was published periodically at Yedo, the capital. The list gave the family name and genealogy of each, as well as the fullest particulars of his family, the number of his residences, the extent and value of his territorial and other property, the uniform of his retainers, the design of his coat of arms, and the flag carried on his ships. A list of Daimios, published at Yedo in 1862, stated their number at 266, with incomes varying from 10,000 to 610,500 koban, or from about 15,000l. to 915,500l. The territory of each Daimio formed a sovereignty within itself, governed, in the case of the more powerful magnates, by a Secretary of State, called Karô, and a number of assistant ministers, and many of them were possessed of large bodies of troops. All these, with their fortified castles, and every attribute of authority, the Daimios surrendered, after more or less resistance, to the hereditary Emperor.

Revenue and Expenditure.

Since the year 1875, regular accounts of public receipts and expenses have been issued by the Government, and though only, as yet, in the form of estimates, they are believed to be very correct. The sources of revenue and branches of expenditure for each of the two financial years, ending June 30, 1876-77 and 1877-78 were given as follows:

The public debt of Japan amounted, at the end of June 1878, to 363,225,677 yen, or 72,645,135l., of which 349,826,661 yen, or 69,965,3327. constituted the home debt, and 13,399,016 yen, or 2,679,8037., the foreign debt. The home debt was made

up as

2,290,190

To this home debt there was added a loan of 12,500,000 yen, or 2,500,000l., issued in August 1878, for developing the resources of the country.

The foreign debt of Japan was raised in England. It comprises a 9 per cent. loan of 1,000l. issued in 1876, and a 7 per cent. loan of 2,400,000l. contracted in London, at the price of 92, in January 1875. This total of 3,400,000l. had been reduced, by the action of a sinking fund, to 2,679,8037. at the end of June 1878.

Army and Navy.

The armed force of Japan is composed, since 1869, of a single element, the troops kept by the Mikado, who constitute the imperial army. By a decree of the Mikado, dated December 28, 1872, the liability to arms was made universal, but it was reported in 1878 that this order had not been carried out. At present the Imperial army, under the command of the Mikado, is very small. Its exact strength is not known, but it probably does not exceed 80,000 men, comprising all arms. A number of Japanese officers and sub-officers were in recent years instructed by French military men at Yokohama. The navy of Japan consisted at the end of June 1878, of one ironclad frigate; two ironclad corvettes; two wooden corvettes; three schooners; one gunboat; one transport, and one yacht. The largest of these ships, the ironclad frigate Foo-soo, was built by Messrs. Samuda Brothers, at Poplar, near London, in 1876-77, and despatched to Japan in March 1878. The Foo-soo has a burthen of 3,700 tons displacement, with engines of 3,500 horse-power. The armour is from 7 inches to 9 inches in thickness, while the armament consists of four 15-ton and two 5-ton steel breechloaders by Krupp, so arranged as to command every point of the horizon. The second largest ship of the navy is an ironclad corvette, called the Kon-go, constructed in 1876-77 at Earle's shipbuilding yard, Hull, after the design of Mr. Edw. J. Reed, left England for Japan in February 1878. The Kon-go has a burthen of 2,800 tons displacement, with engines of 2,500 horse-power, and has a belt of armour 4 inches thick. The armament consists of 12 Krupp guns, capable of throwing steel shells of 142 pounds. A sister ship to the Kon-go, the Hi-jei, also built at Hull, left England for Japan in April 1878. Besides the ships built in English dockyards, the Japanese Government had an ironclad corvette, the Li-ki, constructed at home in 1874-75. The Li-ki, built after the designs of M. Chiboudier, a native of France, superintendent of the Arsenal of Yokoska, is 191 feet in length, with a breadth of 22 feet, and carries five guns on the upper deck.

The navy of Japan was manned in 1878 by 1,200 sailors, including 67 artillerymen, and 260 marines. Naval instruction is

Ꮓ Ꮓ

given to the personnel of the Japanese navy by 8 commissioned and twenty-three non-commissioned English officers, who arrived in the country in 1873.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The total area of Japan is estimated at 160,474 square miles, with a population of 32,794,897, namely, 16,733,698 males, and 16,061,199 females, according to official reports of the year 1875. According to a census taken in December 1878, the population of Japan numbered 34,338,304 souls. Yedo, which at one time had the reputation of being the most populous city in the world, contained, at this enumeration, 1,036,771 inhabitants dwelling in 236,961 houses.

The empire is geographically divided into the three islands of Nippon, the central and most important territory; Kiushiu, 'the nine provinces,' the south-western island; and Shikoku, 'the four states,' the southern island. Administratively, there exists a division into seven large districts, called 'Dô,' or roads, which are subdivided into thirty-five Ken,' or provinces.

The total value of the foreign trade of Japan is estimated at 8,000,000l. per annum, divided nearly equally between imports and exports. The two staple articles of import into Japan are cotton and woollen fabrics, and the staple articles of export, raw silk and tea.

The commercial intercourse of Japan is carried on mainly with two countries, namely, Great Britain, and the United States of America, the former absorbing more than two-thirds of the whole. The extent of trade with the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of the total exports from Japan to Great Britain, and of the total imports of British produce and manufactures into Japan in each of the five years 1874 to 1878:

staple article of export from Japan to Great Britain in the 1878 was raw silk, of the value of 318,1187. The other chief ports were rice, of the value of 116,911.; tea, of the value of 0421.; and tobacco, of the value of 52,597., in 1878.

The

article of British imports into Japan consists of cotton goods,