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the confused mass and matter of heaven and earth was made in a moment; and the order and disposition of that chaos or mass was the work of six days; such a note of difference it pleased God to put upon the works of power and the works of wisdom; wherewith concurreth that in the former it is not set down that God said, Let there be heaven and earth, as it is set down of the works following, but actually that God made heaven and earth; the one carrying the style of a manufacture, and the other of a law, decree, or counsel.

"To proceed to that which is next in order from God to spirits; we find as far as credit is to be given to the celestial hierarchy of that supposed Dionysius, the senator of Athens, the first place or degree is given to the angels of love, which are termed seraphim; the second to the angels of light, which are termed cherubim; and the third, and so following places, to thrones, principalities, and the rest, which are all angels of power and ministry, so as the angels of knowledge and illumination are placed before the angels of office and domination."

Though not naturally inclined to address the feelings so much as the reason, Bacon knew, and upon occasion practised, the arts of elevation. The chief English specimen of his more ambitious rhetoric is a discourse in praise of the Queen, written when he was about thirty. It is a very good example of artificial strength. In the following sample, the strength is gained chiefly by figures of speech proper, by declamatory departure from the ordinary forms of speech :

"To speak of her fortune, that which I did reserve for a garland of her honour; and that is that she liveth a virgin, and hath no children; so it is that which maketh all her other virtues and acts more sacred, more august, more divine. Let them leave children that leave no other memory in their times. Brutorum æternitas, soboles. Revolve in histories the memories of happy men, and you shall not find any of rare felicity, but either he died childless, or his line spent soon after his death, or else was unfortunate in his children. Should a man have them to be slain by his vassals, as the posthumus of Alexander the Great was? or to call them his imposthumes, as Augustus Cæsar called his? Peruse the catalogue-Cornelius Sylla, Julius Cæsar, Flavius Vespasianus, Severus, Constantinus the Great, and many

more.

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It is interesting to compare this forced declamation with the ingenious antithetic conceits on the same theme in his Essay on Parents and Children :

"The perpetuity by generation is common to beasts; but memory, merit, and noble works are proper to men. And surely a man shall see the noblest works and foundations have proceeded from childless men, which have sought to express the images of their minds where those of their bodies have failed. So the care of posterity is most in them that have no posterity."

KINDS OF COMPOSITION.

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Narrative.-Bacon's History of Henry VII.' was written upon a principle enounced in his Advancement of Learning.' After saying that history is of three kinds according as "it representeth

a time, or a person, or an action," and that "the first we call chronicles, the second lives, and the third narrations or relations," he goes on

"Of these, although the first be the most complete and absolute kind of history, and hath most estimation and glory, yet the second excelleth it in profit and use, and the third in verity and sincerity. For the history of times representeth the magnitude of actions, and the public faces and deportments of persons, and passeth over in silence the smaller passages and motions of men and matters. But such being the workmanship of God, as He doth hang the greatest weight upon the smallest wires, maxima e minimis suspendens, it comes therefore to pass that such histories do rather set forth the pomp of business than the true and inward resorts thereof. But lives, if they be well written, propounding to themselves a person to represent, in whom actions both greater and smaller, public and private, have a commixture, must of necessity contain a more true, native, and lively representation."

This ideal of history bears some resemblance to Carlyle's antiDryasdust views. Bacon, a more acute and dispassionate observer than the historian of Friedrich, and practically acquainted with the ends and expedients of kings, has left us what is probably the very best history of its kind. He wrote it in a few months, taking his facts from the Chroniclers, and having access to few, if any, original documents; and consequently its peculiar merit is not accuracy: still, even if it is taken on that ground, his sagacity and knowledge of state affairs proved so true a guide, that his views of the main actions have not been set aside by more patient investigators. Considered on its own claims as an explanation of events by reference to the feelings and purposes of the chief actor, it is perhaps a better model than any history that has been published since. "He gives," says Bishop Nicholson, as sprightly a view of the secrets of Henry's Council as if he had been President of it."

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In one respect Bacon's History is in strong contrast to Macaulay's. In relating the schemes and actious of such a king as Henry, Macaulay would have overlaid the narrative with strong expressions of approval or disapproval. Bacon writes calmly, narrating facts and motives without any comment of a moral nature. Sometimes, indeed, he criticises, but it is from the point of view of a politician, not of a moralist; a piece of cruelty or perfidy is either censured only as being injudicious, or not commented upon at all. On this ground he is visited with a sonorous declamation by Sir James Mackintosh-as if his not improving the occasion were a sign that he approved of what had been done. Bacon wrote upon a principle that is beginning to be pretty widely accepted as regards personal histories claiming to be impartial-namely, that "it is the true office of history to represent the events themselves together with the counsels, and to leave the

observations and conclusions thereupon to the liberty and faculty of every man's judgment." He does not seek to seal up historical facts from the useful office of "pointing a moral "; he only held that the moralising should not interfere with the narrative.

Exposition. We have said that the modern expositor has not much to learn from earlier writers. An exception in one respect may be claimed for Bacon. Though all his scientific matter has been superseded, and his style is now antiquated, the Advancement of Learning' might still be read as a general tonic for incisive expression and perspicuous method. At the same time, it would be a mistake for the student to go to Bacon before he had in some degree mastered the style of modern exposition. To read the productions of Bacon's vigorous and subtle intellect has a bracing influence, but we must first be confirmed against the affectation of trying to imitate.

The 'Sylva Sylvarum' has little value as regards expository style, being merely a record of experiments and observations, with speculations thereupon. The following on "the goodness and choice of waters" is an example of the style; it also illustrates the scientific worthlessness of many of his statements :

:

"It is a thing of very good use to discover the goodness of waters. The taste, to those that drink water only, is somewhat but other experiments are more sure. First, try waters by weight; wherein you may find some difference, though not much; and the lighter you may account the better.

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Sixthly, you may make a judgment of waters according to the place whence they spring or come. The rain-water is by the physicians esteemed the finest and the best; but yet it is said to putrefy soonest, which is likely because of the fineness of the spirit; and in conservatories of rain-water (such as they have in Venice, &c.) they are found not so choice waters; the worse perhaps because they are covered aloft, and kept from the sun. Snow-water is held unwholesome; insomuch as the people that dwell at the foot of the snow-mountains or otherwise upon the ascent (especially the women), by drinking of snow-water, have great bags under their throats. Well-water, except it be upon chalk, or a very plentiful spring, maketh neat red, which is an ill sign. Springs on the top of high hills are the best; for both they seem to have a lightness and appetite of mounting; and besides, they are most pure and unmingled; and again are more percolated through a great space of earth. For waters in valleys join in effect underground with all waters of the same level; whereas springs on the tops of hills pass through a great deal of pure earth with less mixture of other waters.

"

Persuasion.- His power as an orator is attested by two eminent authorities. Sir Walter Raleigh says that he surpassed other men in speaking as much as he did in writing; and Ben Jonson, in his 'Discoveries,' affirms that "His hearers could not cough or look aside from him without loss. He commanded when he spoke, and had his judges angry or pleased at his devotion. No man had their affections more in his power." Making every allowance for

grateful exaggeration in Ben Jonson's eulogy, we can still believe that Bacon was indeed a very convincing speaker. He was not a declaimer; he would not seem to have spoken with heat and fervour: if we raise upon Ben Jonson's description a picture of a hushed audience listening to a glowing orator, we shall be very far from the probable reality. A studied orator, he affected gravity and weight; speaking "leisurely, and rather drawingly than hastily," on the principle that "a slow speech confirmeth the memory, addeth a conceit of wisdom to the hearers, besides a seemliness of speech and countenance." From all that we know, it seems unmistakable that he addressed chiefly the self-interest and confirmed passions of his audience. The main study of his life was how to "work men.

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His verbal ingenuity was great, and carefully cultivated. Under the title of Promus of Formularies and Elegancies,' Mr Spedding has published some specimens of his store of happy expressions, repartees, epigrams, quotations from all scources, laid up for use upon fitting occasions. His collection of apothegms was another part of the same elaborate preparation. In his preface he says: Certainly they are of excellent use. They are mucrones verborum, pointed speeches. Cicero prettily calls them salinas, salt-pits; that you may extract salt out of, and sprinkle it where you will. They serve to be interlaced in continued speech. They serve to be recited upon occasion of themselves. They serve if you take out the kernel of them, and make them your own."

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Another of his studies for Persuasion appears in a fragment first published in 1597, entitled 'Of the Colours of Good and Evil,' or, more fully, 'A Table of Colours or Appearances of Good and Evil, and their Degrees, as places of Persuasion and Dissuasion, and their several Fallaxes and the Elenches of them.' In the beginning he says that "the persuader's labour is to make things appear good or evil, and that in higher or lower degree; which as it may be performed by true and solid reasons, so it may be represented also by colours, popularities, and circumstances, which are of such force, as they sway the ordinary judgment either of a weak man, or of a wise man not fully and considerately attending and pondering the matter. One of these Colours may be quoted as an example of his ingenuity: he himself would probably have been prepared to use and enforce either side according as he found it necessary:

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"That course which keeps the matter in a man's power is good; that which leaves him without retreat is bad; for to have no means of retreating is to be in a sort powerless; and power is a good thing.

Appertaining to this persuasion, the forms are, you shall engage yourself; on the other side, tantum quantum voles sumes ex fortuna, &c.—you shall

keep the matter in your own hands. The reprehension of it is, that proceed. ing and resolving in all actions is necessary; for as he saith well, not to resolve is to resolve; and many times it breeds as many necessities, and engageth as far in some other sort, as to resolve.

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So it is but the covetous man's disease translated into power; for the covetous man will enjoy nothing, because he will have his full store and possibility to enjoy more; so by this reason a man should execute nothing, because he should be still indifferent and at liberty to execute anything. Besides necessity and this same jacta est alea " ["the die is cast "]"hath many times an advantage, because it awaketh the powers of the mind, and strengtheneth endeavour."

OTHER WRITERS.

DIVINES UNDER JAMES.-During the reign of James the Puritans gave little trouble. Forbearing open controversy, they gained ground among the people by their exemplary lives, and left the literary champions of conformity to other employment. Richard Field, 1561-1616, celebrated at Oxford as a disputant, and a favourite royal chaplain under Janies, wrote a treatise to prove that the English Church was the Church of early Christianity, and that the Roman Catholic peculiarities were of modern origin. His style is periodic and sonorous, without containing unidiomatic inversions. He argues with considerable vigour, and occasionally warms into impressive declamation. Lancelot Andrewes, 15551626, Bishop of Winchester, and a Privy Councillor, was a man of greater vivacity.

He was a favourite with Bacon, who records some of his witty apothegms. As a bishop he was hospitable and munificent. He was celebrated for his knowledge of languages. The fact that he was the most popular preacher at Court, both with Elizabeth and with James, shows us whence the fashions of cumbrously superfluous quotation and fanciful word-play came into the sermon - writing of this and the following period. In redundant display of learning he goes beyond even Jeremy Taylor; and his word-play is after the manner we have illustrated from Ascham and Lyly. Bishop Morton, 1564-1659, a descendant from Cardinal Morton, was a voluminous author, chiefly of controversial works; but the length, abstemiousness, and kindly generosity of his life, and the troubles of his later years, will do more to preserve his memory than genius either in thought or expression. John Donne, 1573-1631, the founder of the "Metaphysical" school of poetry, having ruined his prospects of advancement in secular office by an imprudent marriage, after some ten years' uneasy waiting for employment, was urged by King James to enter the Church, and was ordained in 1616. As compared with Andrewes, Donne has the same characteristics of excessive quotation and fanciful wit; still the two are very different. For one thing, though that is not so striking, they draw their quotations

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