and so on. This fact is well expressed by Bobbitt in the following quotation :

The probabilities are that the social and vocational conditions of the coming generation will require that everybody be more mathematical-minded than at present.

The content of mathematics courses is to be determined by human needs. One of the fundamental needs of the age upon which we are now entering is accurate quantitative thinking in the fields of one's vocation, in the supervision of our many coöperative governmental labors, in our economic thinking with reference to taxation, expenditures, insurance, public utilities, civic improvements, pensions, corporations, and the multitude of other civic and vocational matters. (1(a): 46)

From religious-moral instruction to civic-moral instruction. Colonial morality based on Ten Commandments and fear of Satan. Our third example of adapting subject matter to changing social needs is the organization of moral and civic training to take the place of the training in religion which has been eliminated from public schools. In the chapter on broadening purposes of elementary teaching we noted that the dominant purpose in early New England elementary schools was to train children to avoid sin and Satan. Throughout history similar religious teaching has been depended upon to a large extent to train children to behave themselves. Examples of this teaching are to be found to-day in the fact that most persons derive their notions against stealing, lying, swearing, etc. from the Ten Commandments.

Religion eliminated from public schools by sectarians. During the nineteenth century, however, religious teaching was gradually eliminated from American public schools. This elimination was not brought about by persons opposed to religion, but by intense sectarian religionists who were afraid of the interpretations that teachers of a different sect might place upon Biblical matters. One legal basis for the

elimination of religion was found in the American theory of the separation of Church and State, the public schools being state institutions.

Civic-moral teaching being developed. The disappearance of religious instruction from the public schools is one of our most striking examples of the change in subject matter paralleling a change in social life generally. The elimination of religious teaching left moral training in the schools without sanction or force in many instances. Yet the congested city life and the intricate social interdependence resulting from the industrial revolution created a very serious need for moral training. Efforts to meet this need by organizing civic-moral teaching are being made at the present time.

Social changes influencing kindergarten. From rural village of 1837 to modern city of electricity and automobiles. -Our fourth and final example of changing subject matter to meet changing social needs is found in the kindergarten. The first kindergarten was established in 1837, in a small German village, by Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852). One of Froebel's great ideas in establishing this school for little children was to make it a miniature society in which the processes of the home and community would be reproduced in play, and the children thus introduced to a study of social activities. It seems quite obvious that success in doing this in any kindergarten would depend upon beginning with the activities of the homes and the community in which that kindergarten happens to be located. Strange to say, however, for decades kindergartens restricted themselves to using the activities and situations which Froebel had found in his little German village, regardless of the fact that many of the situations of modern city life were not represented there. Progressive modern kindergartens, however, are more consistent in carrying out Froebel's fundamental idea, and they begin with the activities which the little ones may have an

opportunity to actually witness. Since charcoal burners and blacksmith shops are very scarce in many city neighborhoods, these examples from Froebel's list are omitted. Since automobiles are frequent, they are likely to be added. In one kindergarten in Chicago, the children spend considerable time studying and constructing the station of an elevated railway which passes near the school and which is one of the most important factors in this community.

Adapting subject matter to different communities to-day. Kindergarten changes illustrate both historical and local adaptation. The adaptation of kindergarten activities to the local community illustrates another phase of the social adaptation of subject matter which we have been discussing. In the change from oral to silent reading, from colonial arithmetic to twentieth-century arithmetic, from religious-moral teaching to civic-moral teaching, and from Froebel's rural village of 1837 to the modern city of steam, electricity, and automobiles, we were emphasizing the historical variations in social needs and parallel changes in subject matter. But social needs vary also between different communities to-day. Perhaps the most striking examples are found in the kindergartens, as shown in the contrast between the attractive picture of immaculate kindergarten children on page 16 and the statement by Miss Palmer that in many slum kindergartens much of the work of the early weeks centers in training the children to keep themselves clean. In kindergartens for negro children special emphasis may be placed on singing and dancing because of the large part which rhythmic activities play in the social life of negroes. Another striking example of community adaptation is found in the first grades filled with children from homes where a foreign language is spoken. The problem of teaching reading, spelling, and language in such rooms is very different from that in most first grades. Similarly, variations for rural and city

children could be described in several subjects, but sufficient examples have been given to impress the idea that as social needs change, subject matter should change. Often subject matter is retained, however, which was adapted to a social situation which no longer exists. Often a social need exists. for a long time before appropriate subject matter is introduced into the schools. Teachers should be alert to comprehend the social needs of the community in which they work and be actively progressive in adapting their teaching to these needs.

General social point of view emphasized by great sociologist, Spencer. As already suggested, the habit of thinking of adapting teaching to present-day social needs is known as the social point of view in education. We worked from this point of view when we studied the broadening aims of teaching in relation to our interdependent democratic society, and when we paralleled modern scientific business management with effective classroom management. Our discussion of adapting subject matter has furnished further concrete examples. One of the leading exponents of this general social method of thinking was Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), the great English writer on sociology. When Spencer died, in 1903, the greatness of his influence was attested by articles concerning him which appeared in nearly all periodicals and newspapers. The study of sociology, which was one phase of Spencer's life work, concerns the life of social groups, their institutions, their industries, government, religion, morals, superstitions, science, art, etc. Naturally in his study of social activities, Spencer interested himself in education and wrote a series of very influential essays concerning it. The most notable of these, entitled "What Knowledge is Most Worth," was published in 1859. In it Spencer examined English social life from the standpoint of the changes which the industrial revolution and applied

science had brought about, and then criticized severely English education for failing to keep pace with social progress. He said:

That which our school courses leave almost entirely out we find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life. . . . Had there been no teaching but such as is given in our public schools, England would now be what it was in feudal times.

Read Spencer. -Spencer's style is so concrete, vivid, and convincing that all beginning teachers ought to read this essay, which is published as the first chapter of his book entitled "Education." The chapter contains, besides the general social point of view, many valuable ideas, such as the definition of education as "training for complete living," which we used in Chapter II, and an analysis of life's activities," which parallels our statement of social aims given on page 35.

Spencer's opinions important but not infallible.— In reading Spencer, however, it is important to remember that much of what he says is merely his own opinion, and there are possibilities of his being mistaken. As in recent years, so in Spencer's day, the exact scientific facts were lacking to determine the real truth about many educational questions. The characteristics of such scientific facts we shall discuss later. In their absence, we often have to depend on the opinions of men of genius who have devoted much time to the study of educational questions. Spencer was one of these.

Dewey also emphasized social viewpoint; opinions need scientific testing. — Another great thinker and writer who more recently has emphasized the social point of view in education is Professor John Dewey of Columbia University. Dewey's "School of Society," published in 1899, took its point of departure, as did Spencer, from the industrial revolution, and proposed certain changes in elementaryschool work to correspond. The book is easily read. In reading it, however, just as in reading Spencer, students