Relative values shown by relative frequencies and relative difficulties. Thus Professor Jones's study provides two bases for determining relative values in teaching spelling: first, the relative frequencies of the words in children's writing vocabularies; second, the relative difficulties of these words as shown by the frequencies of misspellings throughout the grades.

Writing vocabularies of adults; 1000 most common words. The second type of precise investigation of spelling vocabularies was an effort to determine relative values in the teaching of spelling by tabulating the words used in letters written by adults. Two important investigations of this type were made independently about 1913. One was made by Dr. Leonard Ayres of the Russell Sage Foundation, and the other by Professors W. A. Cook and M. V. O'Shea. Ayres tabulated words from 2000 short letters written by 2000 different people, and found that 2001 different words were used. (8)

Cook and O'Shea tabulated words from the extensive family correspondence of thirteen adults, and found that 5200 words were used. (9)

By combining the results of these two investigations with results from other sources, Ayres selected a list of the 1000 most commonly used English words.

A series of spelling books based on above investigations.Finally, the results of all this scientific investigation of everyday spelling vocabularies were incorporated by certain authors in a series of spelling books which were published in 1917. These books contain only 3448 different words to be taught from the first through the eighth grade. Other spelling books based on these scientific investigations have since appeared. The existence of these books makes it possible for every teacher to concentrate her emphasis in teaching spelling upon words that are used frequently, and to omit the useless wasteful teaching of words that are

seldom used in ordinary writing. Thus we have a very practical outcome from certain very simple but precise scientific studies of relative values.

Relative values in other subjects. If space permitted we could extend the discussion of relative values (determined scientifically or by opinion from an examination of social needs) to geography, history, kindergarten activities, and other subjects. This task may be left to be undertaken by students in class in connection with such questions as the following:

If 100 minutes are devoted to the study of the Mississippi River, how many should be devoted to the study of the Hudson ? the Connecticut? the Muskingum ?

If 100 minutes are devoted to the period between the Revolutionary War and Washington's inauguration, how much time should be devoted to Monroe's administration?

Valuable aid in answering such questions may be secured from references 5 and 7 at the end of this chapter.

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE IN SELECTING SUBJECT MATTER

Scientific procedure contrasted with personal opinions. The investigations of spelling vocabularies which we have described may be used to show what we mean by scientific procedure and scientific conclusions as distinguished from mere opinions. This distinction was noted earlier in speaking of the opinions of Spencer and Dewey on pages 100–101.

Illustrated by spelling investigations. Scientific investigations are mathematically precise. -To the ordinary reader, one of the most striking facts about the spelling investigations is the use of exact mathematical statements; thus Jones had themes from 1050 pupils who used 4532 different words, the arch-demon "which" being misspelled 321 times; while Ayres from 2000 letters tabulated 2001 different

words. This fact furnishes the first characteristic of scientific method which we shall note; namely, it is mathematically precise. Scientific progress in education requires the use of precise mathematical statements just the same as does similar progress in physics or chemistry. In contrast, the opinions of Spencer and Dewey about education lack this mathematical precision.

Science uses objective data that anyone can examine. A second feature of the spelling investigations is that they used materials or data that anyone could examine; Jones had the children's themes in hand, Ayres, Cook, and O'Shea had the adults' letters. From these sources, perfectly tangible material was tabulated; namely, the words used. Such tangible material is described as objective in contrast with mere impressions, feelings, ideas, or opinions which exist only in the mind of some thinker and are not open to general observation and manipulation. The purely mental materials are called subjective. A sunburnt person's statement that he feels hot and feverish would be called subjective, in contrast with the objective reading of the clinical thermometer which might show that his temperature is normal. Hence we have the subjective character of opinion contrasted with the objective character of scientific evidence.

Thus two characteristics of scientific procedure have been noted; it is mathematically precise and it is objective.

Scientific investigations can be verified because completely described. The next feature disclosed by the scientific spelling investigations is that they can be repeated exactly by any competent person in order to determine if errors were made. For example, themes could be secured exactly as Jones secured his and his tabulations paralleled at every stage; letters could be secured as Ayres did his and similar tabulations made. In order that such repetition may occur it is necessary that each step taken in the investigation be fully described. Persons who merely give opinions, seldom

take the trouble to give such thorough accounts of the sources from which their opinions are derived. On the other hand, scientific investigations can be verified at every stage by any person competent to understand the description and duplicate the work.

Science employs experts trained in special methods of research. The last sentence suggests a fourth characteristic of scientific study; namely, training in certain special methods of investigation. Among the spelling investigators, Ayres furnishes the best example. He has had years of training in scientific study, is employed as a research expert by the Russell Sage Foundation of New York City, and has made a notable success in organizing scientific school surveys on a large scale; for example, in Cleveland, in 1915, he had under his direction a staff of some twenty-five investigators, including some of the greatest experts in the country. His work illustrates the fact that scientific studies must be made by experts who are masters of the technique needed to determine the truth in the particular field under investigation.

Thus we have described four features of modern scientific procedure: it is (1) mathematically precise, (2) objective, (3) subject to verification by any competent observer, (4) used by experts.

Scientific investigators are impartial; they are not biased for or against. The fifth and final feature of scientific procedure is its impartiality. In the spelling investigations, neither Jones nor Ayres allowed himself to be biased by his desire to prove that any particular word was more frequently used or misspelled than some other particular word. The desire of each investigator was to find out, to discover, what were the facts; they tried to be impartial in their work. Neither man had any particular reason for being otherwise; for example, neither had previously published a spelling book which contained many or few words and for which he wanted to secure larger sales.

Summary of characteristics of scientific investigations. From the preceding paragraphs we may conclude that scientific investigations can be described as follows :

1. Mathematically precise.

2. Objective.

3. Subject to verification by any competent observer. 4. Made by experts.

5. Impartial.

Contrast of science and opinion summarized by Thorndike. - The contrast between the methods of science and the methods of opinion may be summarized in the above terms by quoting the following statements from Thorndike, from which these terms were derived.

Mathematical precision. Science seeks precise quantitative measures of facts by which changes and correspondence may be properly weighed; opinion is content to guess at amounts of difference and likeness, to talk in the vague terms of "more" or "less," much and "little," to rate a method as better or worse without taking the pains to find out just how much better or worse it is.

Objectivity. Science pays no heed to anything but the facts which it has already made sure of; it puts nothing in the scales but objective evidence. Opinion trusts its personal impressions. Verifiability. - Science reveals the sources of its evidence and the course of its arguments, so that any properly equipped thinker can verify for himself the facts asserted to be true. Opinion offers itself to be accepted or rejected, but not to be verified.

Expertness. Science is the work of minds specialized to search after truth. . . Opinion is the occasional thought of those who, though important and capable people, are yet only amateurs in the work of getting truth [in the field in which their opinions may be offered].

Impartiality. Science knows or should know no favorites, and cares for nothing in its conclusions but their truth. Opinion is often misled by the "unconscious logic of its hopes and fears,” by prepossession for or against this or that book or method or result. (6 265)