If we live in houses because they symbolize protection, if we like to see Sherlock Holmes on the stage because he symbolizes to us craft, or Uncle Tom because he symbolizes to us slavery, or a clown from the circus because he symbolizes to us folly; if we eat apples because they symbolize to us the fall of man, or strawberries because they symbolize to us the scarlet woman, then perhaps the children play with the ball because it symbolizes "infinite development and absolute limitation.”

No one has ever given a particle of valid evidence to show any such preposterous associations in children's minds between plain things and these far-away abstractions. (2: 77-80)

As a result of such criticisms, progressive kindergartners tend to emphasize such activities with playhouses, grocery stores, etc. as were described above on pages 126-127, expecting that children will acquire only the useful everyday knowledge and habits connected with these.

Summary of apperception; meaning, recognition, violation. In our discussion of apperception up to this point, we have noted (1) how adult responses are influenced by their past experiences as illustrated by varied responses to the word "bay," (2) how city children lack adequate real experiences to understand statements about many common objects, (3) how teachers tend to accept mere words from a child as signs of ideas which he often lacks, (4) how Rousseau proposed to give children real ideas through adequate experiences with nature, industries, etc., (5) how these proposals resulted in mere word knowledge of objects through many Pestalozzian object-teaching books, and (6) how the founder of the kindergarten, although inspired by the Rousseau movement, attributed to children ability to understand abstract ideas that never enter the heads of most of them.

Review of examples of proper provisions for apperception. Much of this discussion has necessitated descriptions of mistaken practices. These have been presented, however, in order to impress beginning teachers with the importance

of building their instruction upon children's real experiences and providing adequate new real experiences where these have been lacking. Incidentally in the chapter correct practices were suggested; for example, Miss Bailey introduced a canary, a rabbit, white mice, and goldfish into her firstgrade room for slum children; the practice teacher was told to arrange an excursion to neighboring pine trees. Other examples of correct provision for real experiences and real ideas were given in earlier chapters; for example, in the description of the teaching of North America on pages 117121, and the description of the psychological organization of history teaching on pages 135-140. In order to reënforce these positive suggestions for observing the principle of apperception, we shall describe one further example; namely, the teaching of home geography.

Home geography makes geographic ideas real; from near to remote. The old-fashioned teaching of geography began with books and required memorizing of encyclopedic unrelated facts which were commonly uncomprehended. Maps were little used except for locations of boundaries, capes, bays, cities, etc. Little training was given even in the use of these maps, while surface maps, globes, and sand reliefs were entirely absent. All these practices should be corrected by beginning with real home geography and proceeding to more remote places and ideas, as described below.

Ideas of people. In the modern teaching of geography the studies of the local community begun in the kindergarten give notions of people and their occupations. The history stories and activities in the primary grades give the children ideas of life in deserts, on the sea, in mountains, in Greece, Rome, etc.

Mapping neighborhood. - Systematic geography teaching may begin about the third grade by having the children make a map of the school yard and vicinity, locating on it houses, sidewalks, trees, etc., and labeling each of these appropriately. Gradually the map is extended to include

the neighborhood, and, if conditions permit, the children may map roughly all of the region in sight from some. elevation, such as a neighboring hill. These elementary facts about place and direction are reënforced by studies in local history, commonly in the fourth grade. These studies extend the child's idea of his neighborhood to include the first place of settlement, the location of the first trading posts or farms, the growth of the population, the building of roads, canals, railroads, etc.

Globe as home of historic peoples. - By the middle of the fourth grade, children who have had the work described above have sufficient notions of directions and locations, and of different peoples, to begin the location of these upon the earth. A globe some twenty inches in diameter is suspended in the room and children are provided with six-inch globes, which cost only twenty-five cents and are used at their seats. Upon these they may locate their home and the homes of the Vikings, Greeks, and Romans, whom they have studied. Proceeding always in this concrete way, from the lives and customs of peoples to a study of their location upon the earth, the work in geography reaches the study of North America, which was described in detail on page 117. In this account the extensive use of pictures was noted, to give reality to the pupils' ideas of remote industries, mountains, cañons, etc.

Modeling clarifies geographic ideas; Pestalozzian example. — Finally, we may note one of the most striking devices which is used to give reality to geographic ideas; namely, modeling in sand or clay. One of the first examples of the use of this device occurs in the work of Pestalozzi about 1805 in Switzerland. Some of his lessons were described by a pupil as follows:

The first elements of geography were taught us from the land itself. We were first taken to a narrow valley not far from Yverdon, where the river Buron runs. After taking a general

view of the valley, we were made to examine the details, until we had obtained an exact and complete idea of it. We were then told to take some of the clay which lay in beds on one side of the valley and fill the baskets which we had brought for the purpose. On our return to the [school], we took our places at the long tables and reproduced in relief the valley we had just studied, each one doing the part that had been allotted to him. In the course of the next few days, [occurred] more walks and more explorations, each day on higher ground, and each time with a further extension of our work. Only when our relief was finished were we shown the map, which by this means we did not see until we were in a position to understand it. (8: 327)

SAND-PAN AS AN IMPORTANT AID IN CLARIFYING AND VITALIZING GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

The seven hills of Rome made by fourth-grade children in The University of Chicago Elementary School. Note the two walls, the river Tiber, and Horatius at the bridge. See explanation, below

Story of the above picture. This picture represents an excellent sand-table project worked out by fourth-grade pupils who were studying Roman history. The details of the picture, showing the seven hills of Rome, the two walls, the river Tiber, and the incident of Horatius at the bridge are worthy of careful study. For a complete description of the process by which the class carried on the work, see the article by the teacher, Miss Grace Storm, in the Elementary School Journal, November, 1915, Vol. XVI, pp. 132-146. For a similar project in geography,

namely, a relief and products map of the United States, see Miss Storm's article in the Elementary School Journal, September, 1914, Vol. XVI, pp. 29-40.

When engaged in the public schools of a small town in Illinois, Miss Storm secured the pans for similar projects through children who procured from home two shallow, galvanized-iron pans which had been used under automobiles in garages. Two cheap low tables were then procured, and the two pans, placed side by side, gave ample room for a map of the United States.

The picture illustrates the matter of schoolroom equipment and the use of constructive activities as well as the apperceptional teaching of geography as described on pages 183-187.

A SAXON SETTLEMENT AS A SAND-PAN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT IN FIFTH-GRADE HISTORY

From The University of Chicago Elementary School. Compare the articles by Miss Grace Storm referred to above

Inexpensive sand-pan makes surface features vivid. - In well-equipped schools of the present day large galvanizediron sand-pans are extensively used for making relief models of places studied. Pictures of such models made by the children are shown above and on page 186. As a rule, children work in committees on assigned units, such as the Appalachian Mountains, the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River. The careful attention to the geographic realities which is required of children in such an exercise will readily appear to the reader if she will try to model the Great Lakes in some sand. One fourth-grade child who was doing this said,