they recalled their previous study of surveys in Kentucky, the work of Daniel Boone, the tomahawking of trees for landmarks with the resulting overlapping of claims which led to feuds, the more accurate methods of surveying into townships, sections, quarter-sections, etc. In spite of this careful preparation, however, an observer noticed one girl turn to a boy and ask in a whisper, "What is a survey ?" The boy said he did n't know. The teacher, being unaware of their ignorance, did not ask for any explanation of the word. 6. Very elaborate examples of the preparatory step are found in certain primary reading lessons. For instance, in one system the first material read by the children in the first grade is the rime Seesaw! Seesaw ! Here we go up and down. This is the way to town. Before the actual reading is begun, two preparatory lessons on the rime are given as follows: In the first lesson the pupils are shown a picture of a little boy and girl playing seesaw, or teeter-totter. The pupils talk about having played the game and imitate it by swaying their arms up and down. In the next lesson they memorize the rime exactly and play a little kindergarten game with it. Finally, in the third lesson, the teacher writes the rime on the board. Before writing the first line she says, "What shall I write first?" The children tell her to write "Seesaw! Seesaw!" Thus the pupils' first reading lesson is prepared for in such a skillful way that they have the full meaning in mind before the symbols are presented, and they are intensely interested in telling the teacher what to write. Thus they are prepared to read it as an interesting and meaningful whole. Recall related ideas; state aim of lesson. Most of the above examples illustrate, as a part of the step of preparation, the practice of recalling the general field of ideas in which the pupils are to do their thinking. This recalling may be done by (1) a review of related matters previously studied, and (2) a statement of the general topic or problem or project or plan for the new period. Such a statement of the general plan or aim of the lesson not only helps to arouse in the pupil the appropriate lines of thought, but also enables him to coöperate with the teacher in carrying out the plan or attaining the aim of the lesson. Make transitions clear; reviews, relational phrases, outlines. The above rules concerning reviews and statements of plans apply not only at the beginning of the period but also at the transitions from one phase of the lesson to another. Unless the pupils are made aware of the transition or change, their thoughts may continue to run along the old line. In this textbook the author has endeavored to help the reader over the transitions by means of reviews and transitional sentences. Even single words or phrases such as "however," "nevertheless," "on the other hand,” are important devices to use in writing or teaching in order to put the pupils in the transitional frame of mind which is desired. Building an outline on the blackboard as the lesson progresses and referring frequently to it also serve to keep pupils' minds directed along the right lines. Creating favorable mental attitudes; curiosity aroused by problems. The examples on pages 195–196 also illustrate the creation of certain favorable attitudes of mind as well as the recalling of a field of ideas or line of thought as discussed above. Among the mental attitudes of pupils which are especially favorable in teaching are expectation and curiosity. The latter is particularly helpful when it includes a puzzle or perplexity or problem which interests the pupils and leads them to strive to find the solution. Interesting curious example often used to introduce larger problems. — Very often the best preparation for the study of large problems is through the discussion of some minor problem of more immediate interest. Adams gives the following example : Instead of starting straightway with the subject of the difference between the development of the feudal system in England and in France, the problem might be suggested, Why are there hedgerows in England and not in France? In answering this interesting question, all the essential points of difference emerge, and the incentive of a well-defined purpose is maintained throughout the lesson. (1: 181-182) Playful attitudes and pleasant suggestions prepare for enjoyment. There are many kinds of teaching, however, which do not involve problem solving. The most evident of these occur in teaching the enjoyment of stories, poems, pictures, songs, etc. The art of the preparatory steps here consists in creating a certain general emotional background which we may call “playful,” and recalling certain trains of thought which contain happy suggestions to be used in enjoying the new story, or poem, or picture. Attitude of interest of great importance; next chapter.The arousing of such general mental attitudes as we have been discussing, namely, expectancy, curiosity, playfulness, etc., constitutes one of the largest problems in the practical art of teaching. It may be called the general problem of securing interest and concentrated attention on the part of the pupils. Interest exerts such a large influence in determining how effectively pupils learn, that we shall devote all of the next chapter to a discussion of it as the basis of economy in learning. Before turning to the next chapter, however, the reader may review with profit the summary of the present and preceding chapters as given on page 190. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES The references marked with an asterisk are especially recommended to beginners. *1. ADAMS, JOHN. Exposition and Illustration in Teaching. (The Macmillan Company, 1910.) Pp. 91-144, 167-186. Excellent reference. Many practical illustrations. Interesting style. * 2. CHARTERS, W. W. Co., revised edition, 1912.) Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson & Critical discussion of step of preparation, pp. 322-329. Use of reviews to put pupil in proper frame of mind, pp. 355-364. 3. DEWEY, JOHN. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 1910.) Important critical reference on statement of aim, pp. 201-208. * 4. MCMURRY, F. and C. The Method of the Recitation. (The Macmillan Company, 1903.) Pp. 83-117. Elaborate discussion of preparation and of characteristics of a good aim. Easy and practical. 5. THORNDIKE, E. L. The Understanding of Sentences; a Study of Errors in Reading. Elementary School Journal, October, 1917, Vol. XVIII, pp. 98-114. Results of experimental tests which illustrate prepotency" of certain words or ideas or backgrounds in determining responses of pupils. 2. The use of interesting adventure stories in teaching reading and history illustrates utilizing children's active interests as an aid in teaching. 3. Such utilization of children's interests is a cold-blooded business proposition, not a matter of sentiment. 4. The spontaneous attention which is thus secured is more favorable than forced attention. 5. Sugar-coating uninteresting material in order to secure spontaneous attention is often justified if the attention is not misdirected. 6. In utilizing any inborn interest of pupils, teachers must consider not only its effectiveness in securing attention but also its value in the lives of persons generally and in molding the character of the pupil. 7. For a long time, fear of physical pain, fear of sarcasm and ridicule, and rivalry for marks or prizes were the chief instinctive interests appealed to by teachers. 8. Recent improved school practice tends to rely on the following instinctive interests: a. Interest in adventure and romance. b. Interest in actions of people and animals. c. Desire for social approval. d. Interest in rhythm, rime, jingle, and song. e. Curiosity, wonder, puzzle interest, problem interest, mental activity. f. Interest in expression and communication. g. Manipulation and general physical activity. h. Collecting instinct. i. Imitative play. j. Interest in games. |