first, its economy, which has resulted in greatly reducing the labor of human beings and in increasing their leisure; second, the dependence of people upon others for supplying most of their needs. Consequently we find the strongest contrast between life in the city homes of the present day and life in the rural homes of colonial New England before the Industrial Revolution. In these rural homes boys and girls secured a many-sided industrial and social training for meeting their own needs for food, clothing, and shelter. They were busy most of the time. In the cities to-day the children, particularly the boys, have little to do in the homes; they are dependent upon many agencies far and near for their food, clothing, and shelter, and they have much leisure time to employ in devious ways.

Education for industrial interdependence and for leisure. Consequently the task of the school in training children for complete living is correspondingly increased. It includes not only training for enlightened democratic political citizenship but also training for a broad understanding of our interdependent industrial life and for the harmless enjoyment of the increased social leisure which the economies of the factory system have created.

labor.

Interdependent industrial society gives power to organized This interdependence and leisure is being emphasized by a by-product of the Industrial Revolution, namely, organized labor, the power of which is constantly increasing. The fundamental social cause of the increasing power of organized labor is the intricate interdependence resulting from the specialization of industry and the division of labor. City dwellers are entirely dependent on the labor of distant farmers for their food and of distant miners for the coal which heats their homes and furnishes power for their industries. Hence, if the miners strike for a long time, millions of persons must go heatless and workless. Perhaps the most effective example of this interdependence of people at the

present time, and the resulting power of organized labor, is found in the railroads. If the railroads stop running for a long time people will not only go heatless and workless but many will starve. The organized railway workers appreciate their strategic social position and often make use of it to improve their lot.

Organized labor aims to increase wages, leisure, and happiness of workers. Whatever may be the ultimate outcome of the social power of organized labor, the historical fact is that this power is continually being used to increase the profits of labor from industry and to reduce the hours of labor, thus resulting in increased leisure time for the workman. The ultimate social benefit for which the conscientious unions seem to be striving is increased happiness for their members. As organized labor secures political power, it tends to use this for the same purpose as it does its union power -namely, to increase the happiness of its members. These efforts have often resembled in purpose the efforts of humanitarians as illustrated in the English legislation concerning child labor described above, on page 25. In America examples of legislation influenced by labor interests are found in the eight-hour law for national employees and the state enactments for insurance against accidents in factories. In all this legislation the increased happiness of the individuals concerned stands out: the right of the worker to leisure and means of enjoying it, the right of children to develop fully, the right of the injured to maintenance. Thus "the pursuit of happiness" appears not merely as one of the "inalienable rights” of mankind but also as one of the most prominent aims of positive governmental action.

Increasing happiness of multitudes becomes the aim of democratic education. We have now reached the final point in our story of the social changes which have resulted from the combination of democratic government, humanitarianism, and the factory system. In this story we brought out the

prominent part played by each of these factors in the social development since the American Revolution. Enlightened democratic government for the people, humanitarian efforts resulting in legislation for the benefit of the masses, and the use of the power of organized labor to increase the benefits from the State for the people, all tend to emphasize the importance of the government as an agency for increasing the happiness of the multitudes of peoples. It follows naturally from this fact that public democratic education, which is but one of the functions of democratic government, also tends to emphasize as its aim increasing the sum total of happiness of individuals. Increasing human happiness in this world thus becomes the broad, inclusive educational aim under which we can group the greatly expanded purposes of education which have replaced the narrow, other-worldly, religious aims of the New England Puritans. The Puritans said there are small chances for happiness even in the next world: hell and the devil are waiting to receive untold millions; only by denying yourself the pleasures of this life can you have a chance for happiness in the next; therefore there is no time to pursue happiness here. In contrast American democratic schools are prohibited from teaching religion; hence they cannot focus their attention on the future world, but must prepare definitely for this one. In this preparation their attention is focused upon the training of all individuals so as to increase the sum total of happiness of all individuals in this world.

Happiness aim for multitudes makes "training for the State" concrete. Thus far we have noticed two general facts concerning the happiness aim: first, it contrasts strongly with the "other-worldly" aim of the Puritans; second, it unites the efforts of democracy, humanitarianism, and organized labor. A third point to notice is that it is a guide to deciding what we mean by "training for service to the State." "The State" is a very abstract term, and I

must confess I have often wondered just what it means. During the period of despotism in France Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) is reported to have said, "The State? I am the State." Very commonly the State has been thought of as being the same as the government. Recently, however, an eminent sociologist 1 said:

A state is essentially like any other human group, a bridge club, a philharmonic society, a merchandising firm, a banking corporation, a charity organization, a religious community, a counterfeiters' gang, an artists' guild a state is a company -of persons behaving themselves in a certain way.

These uncertainties concerning the meaning of "the State" make it undesirable to phrase our educational aims in terms of such a vague abstraction. It is far better to think of them in terms of the more concrete objects of education, namely, the individuals whom we teach and their lives in school and after graduation. We have noted that democracy, humanitarians, and organized labor have focused their attention on the happiness of these concrete individuals. We have set up their happiness as the aim of education. We shall now endeavor to find out what we mean by their happiness.

Happiness, the experience which we desire for those dear to us. Like the term "state, happiness is an abstract idea that is difficult to define; hence we shall not try to define it. We shall content ourselves with suggesting that happiness is that type of experience which most of us desire for our mothers and fathers, our sisters and brothers, our children—in general, for those who are dear to us. With this idea as our starting point we can begin to work back toward some of the more concrete ideas about teaching with which the chapter opened. Our first step will be

1 Albion W. Small," Americans and the World Crises," American Journal of Sociology, September, 1917, Vol. XXIII, p. 171.

to determine what are the things that loom large in achieving the happiness of those that are dear to us and of individuals in general. The most prominent of these factors are shown in the following outline. They may be regarded as the broader social aims of teaching.

We shall now take up each of the above aims for consideration.

Good health. Of universal interest irrespective of wealth or position. The importance attached to good health in ordinary life is suggested by the common form of greeting, "How do you do? how are all the folks?" Not only is health the first topic of conversation with many persons but often it is the only topic. Having ascertained from one person the facts concerning health, you walk on until you meet your next friend, and repeat the same ritual with him. It would be hard to find any topic that receives so much thought and consideration. It concerns both rich and poor. In this respect it probably presents a more prevailing problem than unemployment, for while three fourths of the workers in America probably have rather steady employment, the uncertainties of health are presented to practically everybody.

Distress from sickness popularizes physicians, patent medicines, and mental healing. Regarded from the happiness standpoint, it is obvious that ill health is the cause of enormous distress and suffering. This distress