went to the sideboard, obtained a knife, carefully cut the smaller piece of cake into two pieces, and then asked his sister whether she would have one piece of cake or two! Don't you know what that boy will do when he becomes an exploiter of schemes, the superintendent of a railroad, or a political boss? (28: 437)

Types of leaders. After this example, Giddings distinguishes between children who are natural-born followers and those who are natural leaders. Continuing, he says:

Now observe the methods of the child who shows early in his life that he will be an instigator, an initiator, a "boss." I use the plain, short word. President, emperor, king- these are dignified personages, but the real man is the "boss." ... Does the child that you are watching get his way by sheer savage, brute strength? Many children do. Does he get his way by superior courage, or because he sees farther, sees quicker, and keeps on seeing longer than the other children do? Some children get their way by these methods. Or, finally, does he get his way by bartering, or by offering a bribe?... I am quite sure that it is necessary to warn all teachers to watch the child who gets his way, perhaps when he is only two or three years of age, by offering bribes. Unless guided he will become one of those human beings of whom so often we read in the newspaper obituaries: "An excellent man in all the private relations of life, a good father, an excellent neighbor, [but] in the accumulation of his fortune and in the methods by which he obtained political distinction and leadership, he too often used methods which brought him into notoriety and under investigation." (28: 438)

The highest type of leader: energetic, diligent, intelligent, resourceful, generous, good-natured, likable, moral. — Finally, notice the characteristics of the highest type of capacity for leadership which Giddings brings out in the following paragraphs:

You may find that a child is getting his way, and is beginning to exercise a share in social control by quite another method than any one of these already spoken of. He is not a little brute or a savage. He is not a bribe-giver by nature. He is not clever in the

sense of being tricky. He is none of these things. You notice that within limits he can have his way merely by being energetic and good-natured. Everybody likes him. He creates an atmosphere of vitality, of liveliness. Quite unconsciously the little children around him, all, simply because they like him and like to be with him, spontaneously follow his suggestions. In that child you have the possibilities of a very high type of leadership. It can easily be spoiled; spoiled through vanity or by indulgence. Realize, then, that in that child you have one of the most priceless things in human society—a human being, who, if he develops rightly and is not spoiled in any way, may become one of those leaders of men who have their way and produce results, because, without especially trying or going out of their way, and merely by being naturally superior, and working ceaselessly and generously, according to the initiative of their own minds, they inspire confidence, hold a following, and are obeyed.

If there is anything whatever that is inexcusable in educational methods or institutions, it is the killing off of these priceless things in human character and mind. To fail to kill off the evil things is bad enough, to fail to develop the average possibility is bad enough, but to kill off the rare, priceless things upon which the fullest future progress of mankind depends is the most criminally inexcusable thing that any educational system can be guilty of. Parents, teachers, school boards, politicians, society, all share in this guilt when they fail in his earliest days to discover, to pick out, and properly to train that little child who, as you see by watching him on the playground and in all the ordinary affairs of life, gets his way not by force, nor by bribery, nor by trickery, — the devices of politician and exploiter, — but simply and naturally by sheer intellectual and moral energy, by creating an atmosphere that all little children about him like to get into, and by making them without conscious effort on his own part eager to help him work out his suggestions. For that boy or that girl has in him or in her the making of the finest possible type of leader of men or leader of women. (28: 440)

Other capacities. Read Thorndike. In the foregoing paragraphs, in order to impress the reader with the great variety of human capacities and the social value of each, we

described a few of the more important and more tangible ones; namely, the capacities for expression in language, drawing, painting, and music, for acquiring manual skill, for arithmetical computation, for mathematical reasoning, for understanding people, and for managing people. In each case we noted the great variations between individuals in a single capacity. Many more capacities could be cited; for example, Thorndike gives, in addition to the above, the capacities for self-control, energy, precision, thoroughness, originality, coöperation, self-denial, self-reliance, refinement, and sympathy. In order to secure a more adequate understanding of these capacities, students should read the references to Thorndike's works given in the bibliography on page 322. He has done more than any other American to impress teachers and school superintendents with the necessity of adapting school work to differences in the capacities of children. In his "Principles of Teaching," Thorndike discusses not only differences in capacity but also differences in the temperaments of children and appropriate treatment. The following statement by Kirkpatrick, of the special treatment needed by a nervous child, suggests the problem which Thorndike discusses with many other examples :

It is especially important that the nervous child should not be scolded, found fault with, or in any way induced to work hard or worry about his work. A teacher who is loud of voice, unattractive in dress, and sudden and variable in manner is especially irritating to a nervous child, and may be the chief occasion of the nervousness. Although a teacher should be quick to note signs of nervousness, she should avoid making the child conscious of his condition. The establishment of regular habits of work and of rest or amusement are of great value in decreasing nervousness. (30: 335)

Programs of National Education Association discuss individual differences. -The most tangible evidence of the recent wide interest in individual differences is found in the programs

of educational organizations, notably the National Education Association. In 1910 a large part of the program of its winter meeting was devoted to the topic. In later programs additional papers were presented on the topic.

Study childhood, study children, study each child's talents and deficiencies. From Rousseau to Galton. Many of the efforts to provide for individual differences which are discussed by the eminent educators to-day are administrative in character; that is, they deal with the establishment of special schools, special classes, individual promotions, etc. The chief concern of each teacher, however, in providing for individual differences is so to differentiate her class instruction as to vary the pace for the talented and the deficient in each subject, to develop each pupil's special talents toward the greatest usefulness, and to correct his deficiencies to the minimum skill or knowledge which may be socially neces sary. In order to do this she must study each child carefully, to determine what individual attention he needs. In doing this she is merely carrying out the program for psychologizing teaching which Rousseau proposed in his "Émile" in 1762, when he said, "Begin, then, by studying your pupils more thoroughly." From Rousseau to Galton and Thorndike, the movement to consider each pupil's capacities and progress has been gaining momentum. For a long time the basis of the movement was sentimental; that is, the "sacredness of the child's individuality " was the central thought. In recent years the value to society of different talents from the manual skill of the artisan to the mathematical reasoning of a Kepler and the social leadership of a Lincoln has been an important factor in bringing about differentiated teaching. Probably the most important and valid influence, however, has been the scientific studies of human nature made by Galton and his followers. Such studies remove the contentions of Rousseau from the realm of sentiment and mere opinion, and transfer them to the realm of scientific.

conclusions reached by expert, verifiable investigations that are objective, mathematically precise, and impartial.

This

Conclusion of discussion of individual differences. will conclude our discussion of adapting class instruction to differences in capacity. It will be recalled that we opened the chapter with the simple example of monotones and sweet singers in the same family, and the great difference in the amount and kind of instruction needed to teach them to sing. We then took up examples of school practices which permit slow and fast pupils to advance at appropriate rates. A presentation of statistical data then showed that without such differentiated teaching the brightest pupils may have half of their time to spare while the slowest fail to learn enough to progress through the school. Surfaces of frequency were presented to show that only a few of such very bright and very slow pupils would be found in each capacity in a single class. Scientific studies by Galton and others were then summarized to show that the talents and deficiencies of pupils are commonly due to their inborn equipment; hence, they call for the most sympathetic, reasonable treatment by the teacher. In order to impress the latter with the great variety of valuable possibilities to be found in different pupils, a few of the most important human capacities were described and attention called to the recent enthusiastic interest of American educators in providing differentiated instruction to secure the greatest individual and social happiness through the development of the talents of each pupil.

Summary of Part II: learning processes, general aspects. We concluded the general points of view presented in Part I of the text with a presentation of the psychological point of view in organizing subject matter; namely, that it should be organized not merely in terms of the subject, but as children learn it most readily and effectively. We found that the discussion of how children learn contained so many problems that we devoted to it the six chapters