this set of aims the detailed psychological aims of teaching. In order to make our whole scheme of aims and purposes clear, both social and psychological aims are shown in the following outline:

As stated above, each of the psychological aims refers to specific results that we want to produce from day to day in each boy and girl. Naturally each one of these specific results must be clearly useful in attaining the broader social aims outlined in the other column. For example, the reader might try to show to which of the broader social aims each of the following items contributes :

1. The informational facts “three feet equal one yard' and "Washington is the capital of the United States."

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2. The habits of "keeping things in order,' keeping the teeth clean," and "beginning each sentence with a capital letter."

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3. Many of the ideals expressed in Benjamin Franklin's sayings, such as Early to bed" etc., and all of those in Lincoln's Gettysburg address.

4. Abiding interests in reading about current events, in discussing civic problems, in learning about industrial conditions, in following scientific progress, in keeping in touch with literature, music, and the drama.

We are justified in feeling sure of the values of these matters because it is easy to show that they do contribute to health, harmless enjoyment, good will, or social service.

The usefulness of the detailed psychological aims in guiding our thinking about teaching will become more apparent as we read later chapters. At this point only a few comments will be made on each.

Information important, but its exclusive emphasis is to be avoided. Information in arithmetic, geography, and history has commonly been emphasized in elementary schools, often to the neglect of ideals and abiding interests. This is partially due to the fact that it is easy to put children to work acquiring information and easy to devise tests or examinations to determine whether they have learned it. It is much more difficult to develop abiding interests or ideals in each Ichild and to test him to see if he has them.

The overemphasis on information has often led to an extreme reaction against requiring children to learn any exact facts. This neglect is just as unreasonable as overemphasis. In all forms of social service,-business, home, or civic, reliable technical information is absolutely necessary for efficiency. In matters of health, the appalling loss of life from preventable diseases, such as tuberculosis, and the widespread distress from poor feeding are striking examples of the supreme value and need of education which emphasizes reliable scientific information. Special discussions of the principles of teaching information will be given in the chapters on subject matter and apperception.

Habits include skills and specific and general habits. The habits most commonly emphasized in elementary schools have been the automatic skills, such as handwriting and skill in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. As in the case of information, these skills are very tangible and are easily tested; hence the emphasis upon them.

Next in order come certain special habits, such as the habit of checking one's problems to see if they are correct, or the habit of running on tiptoe in the kindergarten, or the habits of putting specific materials away in their proper places.

Finally we have certain general habits of which perhaps the most important and most tangible is the habit of wide, rapid reading. The habit basis for rapid reading is well started in good elementary schools by the end of the fourth or fifth grade, and later teaching tends to broaden it in the direction of a permanent habit of wide reading. Somewhat less tangible than the reading habit are such habits as those listed under kindergarten purposes on page 18, above; namely, noninterference with others, self-control, working for a remote end,. obedience. In many phases of teaching, notably in drill, reading, writing, problem-solving, harmless enjoyment, expression, and moral training, the formation of habits is a prominent process.

Ideals; for personal efficiency and good will. — Examples of ideals were suggested above in connection with Benjamin Franklin's sayings; for instance, one of my students stated that she always troubled her mother by lying late in bed until she read Poor Richard's "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.” Thereupon she began to make this a rule and had observed it ever since. A kindergarten child may form the ideal, “It's nice to be able to put on your own coat and rubbers"; a first-grade child the ideal, "It's nice to be a good helper I want to be a good helper "; and a second-grade child the ideal, “It is n't fair to keep the rest of the class waiting for me." These simple examples suggest that the teaching of ideals should be closely connected with the behavior and habits of the pupils in school and should proceed step by step from the more concrete matters such as "putting on coat and rubbers" to the more abstract general ideals such as "being on time" and "being fair." The development of such ideals as contribute to personal efficiency, and the formation of moral ideals as the basis of active good will, are among the most important functions of elementaryschool teaching.

Many-sided abiding interests; determining permanent lines of desire. Finally we may note what is meant by the fourth psychological aim, namely, many-sided interests. By interests here we mean the permanent lines of desire which determine to a very large extent a person's choices in life. An example of the building up of such a desire is found in the contrast between my own experience with the Bible and that of my little boy. Such Bible reading as I heard as a child was mere Bible reading, nothing else, and its meaningless abstractness made it repulsive to me. My son's first experience with Biblical material happened to be through reading, at seven years of age, James Baldwin's "Old Stories of the East," in which the adventures of David, Joseph, and Samson are fascinatingly told for second-grade or third-grade children. A large book of illustrations of "Travels in Bible Lands," with maps of Asia Minor, happened to be at hand for pleasant perusal about the same time. Recently, seeing Griffith's moving picture "Intolerance" gave a vivid notion of the life in Babylon, of Belshazzar's feast, of the battles of the Persians and the Babylonians. Meanwhile, studies in fourth-grade history had included thrilling accounts of the struggles between the Greeks and the Persians, of the heroic deeds at Thermopyla, Marathon, and Salamis. In the newspapers and illustrated magazines he has followed the triumphs of the British in Mesopotamia and Palestine. For his tenth birthday, recently, he received a copy of L. E. Cragin's "Old Testament Stories for Little Children," in which the familiar stories first read in the Baldwin, and many others, are reproduced in more Biblical language, and the picture of Belshazzar's feast appears in close resemblance to that seen in "Intolerance." Having devoured the Cragin with interest, he is waiting impatiently for an Old Testament which has been promised to him. Thus as a result of a peculiar combination of adventure reading, fourth-grade history, the movies, and current

events he has developed an active desire, an active "reaching out," for more Biblical reading. Perhaps it may result in a permanent abiding interest in Biblical matters.

Many-sidedness of interest to insure breadth of mind and service. Even casual consideration shows that such lines of desire, such abiding interests, are factors of enormous importance in determining one's behavior and happiness. The qualification, "many-sidedness," suggests that the school should endeavor to build up in each pupil worthy lines of desire or interests corresponding to all types of human experience, interests in local community affairs, in larger national affairs, in affairs of the whole world, in health, in industry, in science, in music, in literature, in sports and games, in all activities which will tend to make a broadminded, efficient, serviceable, happy individual. Throughout all the chapters that are to follow, this training of the many-sided serviceable individual for happiness and complete living may be kept in mind as the ideal towards which the broadening elementary schools are working.

Conclusion. - This will conclude our discussions of the broadening purposes of elementary-school teaching which have grown out of modern democracy, humanitarianism, and the industrial revolution. In the next chapter we shall turn. to another characteristic feature of modern social life, namely, scientific business management, and show its application to classroom management. This discussion will seem much more practical than the present chapter. However, the broad ideas of aims and purposes which have been presented here will serve as guides in determining practices throughout the chapters that are to follow. Hence, before leaving this chapter the reader is advised to review the main points on page 12, above, and to memorize the outline of social and psychological aims on page 46.