BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

The beginner might read first, with greatest profit, the references marked with an asterisk (*).

Broadly interpretative. I. BAGLEY, W. C., and JUDD, C. H. Enlarging the Elementary School. School Review, May, 1918, Vol. XXVI, pp. 313-323. Emphasizes enrichment of opportunity. By two of America's most prominent professors of education.

2. BOBBITT, FRANKLIN. The Curriculum. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918.) The most progressive and concrete American discussion of training for occupational efficiency, citizenship, physical efficiency, leisure occupations, and social intercommunication.

*3. Dewey, JOHN. The School and Society. (The University of Chicago Press, 1899; enlarged 1915.) Chap. i contains a contrast of colonial home life and home life in modern cities. By America's foremost exponent of the "social point of view" in education.

*4. SPENCER, HERBERT. Education (1860). The first essay, entitled "What Knowledge is most Worth," contains his analysis of " complete living" as the aim of education. Spencer was a great sociologist.

Critical discussion of aims. - 4 a. BAGLEY, W. C. The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Company, 1905.) Pp. 40-65. A notable chapter; simple, clear-cut, well organized.

Historical.-5. CUBBERLEY, E. P. Changing Conception of Education. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1909.) Chaps. i and ii. A masterly interpretation of American social and educational changes since the colonial period.

6. HAZEN, C. D. Modern European History. (Henry Holt and Company, 1917.) Pp. 428-506. Brilliant interpretation of democratic developments in England from 1815 to the present. Vivid background for similar democratic developments in education.

7. PARKER, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education. (Ginn and Company, 1912.) Pp. 66-77, on narrow religious character of colonial schools of New England; pp. 227-237, 242–246, 264–267, on philanthropic provision for elementary schools in England and America.

8. TRYON, R. M. Household Manufactures in the United States. (The University of Chicago Press, 1917.) Especially chap. vii, pp. 242– 302, on the transition to shop and factory manufacturing.

Child labor. 8 a. ABBOTT, E., and BRECKENRIDGE, S. P. Truancy and Non-Attendance in the Chicago Schools, a Study of the

Social Aspects of Compulsory Education and Child Labor Legislation in Illinois. (The University of Chicago Press, 1915.)

9. MCINTIRE, R. The Effect of Agricultural Employment upon School Attendance. Elementary School Journal, March, 1918, Vol. XVIII, pp. 533-542. Presents distressing picture of child labor in American cotton, tobacco, and beet fields.

Kindergarten. 10. RAPEER, L. W. Teaching Elementary School Subjects, chapter entitled "The Kindergarten and the Elementary School," by Patty Hill. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1917.) Pp. 38-57. Excellent statement of aims of progressive kindergartens.

Quoted Incidentally.—11. KINGSLEY, S. C., and DRESSLAR, F. B. Open-Air Schools. Bulletin No. 23, United States Bureau of Education, 1916. A very attractive publication.

CHAPTER III1

ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Main points of the chapter. 1. The school is a complicated institution with large opportunities for waste and for economy.

2. To avoid waste, principles of business management should be applied in the classroom.

3. Routine is necessary for efficiency and economizes time and

energy.

4. Individuality, spontaneity, initiative, and reasoning may have the same place in a well-routinized school as they have in democratic social life.

5. The principal routine factors are (1) getting started right the first day, (2) seating of pupils, (3) passing to and from recitations, (4) handling materials, (5) attention to physical conditions, (6) maintenance of good order.

Need to correlate progressive theory and efficient practice.

In the preceding chapter we established a general point of view concerning the purposes of elementary-school instruction which will assist us in judging the value of processes of instruction to be discussed in later portions of the book. There is danger, however, that educational leaders and students will overemphasize the somewhat idealistic conceptions presented in the preceding chapter and will neglect to keep in mind the practical school situation in which such theories have to be carried out. This statement does not imply that the more progressive policies cannot be carried out in actual practice, but it does imply that the success of these policies will depend upon the efficiency

1 About ten pages of this chapter are reprinted from the author's "Methods of Teaching in High Schools." (Ginn and Company, 1915.)

with which progressive teachers apply principles of business management in organizing their instruction. Consequently, in order to secure a proper balance in the mind of the reader between an enthusiasm for broader modern ideals in education, on the one hand, and principles of practical management, on the other, this chapter dealing with economy in classroom management is introduced at this point.

Teacher should avoid misdirected time and energy. The school is a complicated institution, maintained by society to achieve certain specific results. The classroom activities should be planned carefully to make sure that they are directed toward securing these results most economically and effectively, and the possibilities of misdirected time, effort, and energy should be reduced to a minimum.

Principles of business management should be applied. In any other institution or organization or plant that is as complicated as the school, efficiency depends to a large extent upon careful attention to the details of management. In a manufacturing plant, for example, great care is taken to provide for the most economic placing and handling of material, so as to eliminate waste motion. A manufacturer may enormously increase the efficiency of his plant by inventing a device that will require fewer operations to produce an article, or will produce several articles by the same number of operations as formerly produced but one. If such principles of economy are important in factories, where the product that is wasted or economized is material, they are much more important in the school, where the product to be wasted or economized consists of human lives. No factory or production process deals with more precious raw material than does the school; hence in no other process is it more important to give careful attention to the problems of waste and economy than in education.

Routinize mechanical aspects; use judgment in variable aspects, - The sources of waste in classroom work have

been divided by Professor Bagley into two principal types : The first type includes those where the waste is due to failure to organize properly certain mechanical aspects of the classroom activity. To this type he applies the term routine factors. The second type includes those sources of waste which are due to failure to adjust the classroom activities to the constantly varying capacities, interests, and responses of the pupils. To these aspects of school work Bagley applies the term judgment factors. The routine factors include those matters that recur in approximately the same form from day to day and which can be advantageously systematized, organized, and reduced to mechanical habits. The judgment factors, on the other hand, are constantly varying, and require of the teacher constant alert exercise of judgment in order to avoid misdirected time and energy.

List of principal routine and judgment factors. — The principal matters to which attention should be given from the standpoint of routine are the following:

I. Getting started right the first day.

2. Seating of pupils.

3. Passing and marching by pupils. 4. Handling materials.

5. Attention to physical conditions. 6. Maintenance of order.

The principal judgment factors are related to making provisions for individual differences in capacities and securing concentrated attention in the right direction. This chapter will discuss the elimination of waste through proper organization of the routine factors. The judgment factors will be considered in several later chapters.

Reasoning and individuality may have the same place in a well-routinized school as in social life. Before taking up a detailed discussion of the routine factors, we shall endeavor to justify the "business conception" of schoolkeeping which has been outlined above, since, according to