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many teachers and administrators. It is to be regretted that there are many educational extremists who tend to line up in either one of the following columns:

Extreme formalists

1. All routine, no freedom.
2. Emphasize formal subjects,
neglect content subjects.

3. Emphasize memorizing, neg-
lect reasoning.

Extreme idealists

1. All freedom, no routine.
2. Emphasize content subjects,
neglect formal subjects.

3. Emphasize reasoning, neg-
lect memorizing.

But it is not necessary to be either an extreme formalist or an extreme idealist. It is possible to provide for an adequate study of the content subjects (geography, history, literature, science, etc.) by methods that involve reasoning, and at the same time to provide for routinizing those phases of classroom management in which it will result in economy of time and effort.

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Do habits antagonize reasoning? — The point just mentioned is related to a final objection; namely, that routine, or habit, antagonizes reason." By habit we mean the tendency to behave in situations in approximately the same ways as we have behaved in similar situations before. By reasoning we mean the tendency to reflect concerning readjusting or modifying our reactions to situations — to think out new methods of dealing with problematic situations.

The tendency to focus attention on either one or the other of these two phases of behavior, namely, either habit or reasoning, is brought out in an interesting way in comparing two definitions of education, one by William James (1842-1910) and the other by Professor John Dewey, two of the foremost American writers on psychology. In his "Talks to Teachers on Psychology" (page 29) James says, "Education is the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior," and on page viii he says, "The aim of education is to make useful habits automatic." Here we have the emphasis

placed on the habit element in education. On the other hand, Dewey says, “Education is the reconstruction of experience." Here the emphasis is placed, not on the fixing of former methods of behavior, but on the breaking up of habits and the readjustment of one's old methods of behavior to meet new and changing situations.

Some habits free the mind for reasoning. -The apparent contradiction involved in these two definitions of education disappears, however, when we get a complete statement from one of the authors, in which both factors, habit and reason, are taken into consideration. Thus, James says:

...

We must make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can. The more of the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless custody of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set free for their own proper work. There is no more miserable human being than one in whom nothing is habitual but indecision, and for whom the lighting of every cigar, the drinking of every cup, the time of rising and going to bed every day, and the beginning of every bit of work, are subjects of express volitional deliberation. Full half the time of such a man goes to the deciding, or regretting, of matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as practically not to exist for his consciousness at all. If there be such daily duties not yet ingrained in any one of my readers, let him begin this very hour to set the matter right. (2(b): 122)

This quotation gives the true relation to establish between habit and reasoning, and may well furnish a motto for classroom activity; namely, "Make habitual, as early as possible, as many useful acts as you can, in order that the minds of teachers and children may be free to consider problems that are worth reasoning about." We shall now proceed to apply this motto to the six routine aspects of classroom management which were outlined above on page 55.

1. Begin right the first day. The first consideration in classroom management from the standpoint of routine is

to get started right the first day. As James advises in the last sentence in the quotation given above, "begin this very hour to set the matter right." In classroom management, the time to set matters right is at the beginning. Any neglect of this advice results in lost ground which can only be recovered later by sacrifice of time and energy. James gives the following rule in this connection: "In the acquisition of a new habit . . we must take care to launch ourselves with a decided initiative." Applied to the first day at school, this rule means that work should start off with a vigorous attack by pupils and teacher. It means that it is important to have the impressions of the first day be those that are to persist and give the keynote for the rest of the term.

Become acquainted in advance with the local situation. — In order to be able to do this, the beginning teacher, or a teacher in a new situation, needs to get on the ground some days before school opens and to familiarize herself thoroughly with the situation in general and in detail. This should include a study of the community, of the recent history of the school, of the ideals and policy of the present administration, of the building (with its classrooms, assembly arrangements, lavatories, playground, heating and ventilating systems), of the school library and other neighboring library facilities. It should include also a careful examination of the course of study and of the annual and daily programs. This should lead to a definite planning of the work to be covered for the whole term. If it is the teacher's first year in teaching, she would do well to advise with several experienced teachers concerning the best pace with which to advance.

Plan definite activities for the first day. - Having got the general situation in mind, she should plan in detail the work of the first week and be prepared to use the first day for purposes of serious instruction. In order to do this she will have to make sure that the necessary materials are on

hand, including possibly chalk, pencils, pens, ink, paper, maps, specimens, materials for construction, toys, or whatever may be required.

The work of the first day may include three elements: (1) steps to acquaint the teacher with the pupils, (2) steps to make the pupils feel at home and interested in the school, (3) some actual instruction. Such instruction may easily include free play, games, construction or story-telling in the kindergarten and primary grades, conversational introductions to new topics in all grades, lessons from books above the first grade where free textbooks are provided, or reviews of work of the previous year and related experiences.

With the first day used effectively in some such manner, the first step has been taken in the direction of economizing time and energy.

2. Varied seating and grouping of pupils for various purposes. The second routine aspect of the classroom management concerns the seating or grouping of pupils for various purposes. Some examples will be given to illustrate the possibilities of improved instruction by attention to this matter.

Kindergarten circle replaced by more informal groupings. -The first examples are from the kindergarten where very strong traditions have prevailed concerning the seating and grouping of pupils. Often the traditional formal arrangements are not so well suited to the kindergarten activities as others would be. This fact is brought out in the following comments made by Miss Alice Temple in a survey of a conservative kindergarten system.

Tradition seems to have decreed that there are but two possible arrangements for the children in the kindergarten. . . . For all work with materials they must be seated at tables; for all other exercises they must be seated or standing in a ring. The position in the ring is a good one for the playing of games, but for free conversation, or story-telling, . . . the gathering of the

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From Butte, Montana, public kindergarten

MODERN TYPE OF KINDERGARTEN EQUIPMENT

Large blocks permitting of informal construction by the pupils

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