revolutionary party in Switzerland, and he was appointed by one of its leaders to take charge of a school at Stanz, composed chiefly of orphans whose parents had been killed by the French. Here was a golden opportunity for Pestalozzi. His whole nature was drawn into executive activity by the conditions. He saw the peasant children in wretchedness and degradation, and he believed it to be the highest duty of man to relieve their wretchedness and train their powers so that they might rise from their degradation. He clearly conceived the idea that God gave to each child some element of divine power with unlimited capacity for upward growth, and that the proper training of this Divinity in children would enable them to live true lives; would make true living joyous and attractive. He entered on his work with great earnestness. His daily life was one of self-sacrifice and unselfish devotion to the destitute children. He says in a letter to a friend, "Every assistance, everything done for them in their need, all the teaching they received, came directly from me. My hand lay upon their hands, my eye rested on their eyes, my tears flowed with their tears, my smile accompanied theirs; their food was mine, their drink was mine. I had no housekeeper, no friend nor servant; I slept in their midst. I was the last to go to bed at night, and the first to rise in the morning. I prayed with them and taught them in their beds before they went to sleep."

He was willing to live like a beggar that he might teach beggars to live like kings." He said, "I felt what a high and indispensable human duty it is to labour for the poor and miserable, that he may attain to a consciousness of his own dignity through his feeling of the universal powers and endowments which he possesses awakened within him; that he may not only learn to gabble over by rote the religious maxim that Man is created in the image of God, and is bound to live and die as a child of God,' but may himself experience the truth by virtue of the Divine power within him, so that he may be raised, not only above the ploughing oxen, but also above the man in purple and silk who lives unworthily of his high destiny."

He was bitterly opposed, however, even by the parents of the children who were not orphans. He was a Protestant, and the people of Stanz were chiefly Roman Catholics. He was pro

gressive, and they were opposed to the reforms of the new government. He was labouring to lift humanity by cultivating the natures of the children physically, intellectually and spiritually; the people saw only the advantages of charity. But his loving nature won the children's love, and he was supremely happy in his work. The teaching passion was

intensified in his life. All that he had written in his books as theory he now executed in experience, and practical application gave new revelations, and clear insight. He knew that he was now doing his best work, and he felt the Divinity in himself growing as it had never done before; as it can do only when a man has found the path of his greatest power. We can judge how happy he was by his statement: "I could not live without my work." No man ever did truly live who did not find his own special work. It is only then that living has its full meaning to the individual or to humanity. God gives new revelations to the individual whose work is in harmony with his selfhood.

Pestalozzi remained a teacher. He taught in different places, and attained his widest celebrity at Yverdun. Throughout Europe his reputation spread, so that students came from all countries, and the influence of his ideas was felt in all school systems. Even princes were interested in his plans for elevating humanity. But his own institution was ultimately a failure financially, owing largely to what he himself called "his unrivalled incapacity to govern." His loving life closed in 1827, when he was eighty-one years of age. On the one hundredth anniversary of his birth a bust of Pestalozzi was erected by his reverent countrymen, under which they wrote the inscription:

"Saving the poor at Neuhof; at Stanz the father of orphans; at Burghof and Munchen-Buschsee founder of a popular school; at Yverdun educator of humanity. Man, Christian, Citizen, -All for others, nothing for himself.

Peace to his ashes,

To our father Pestalozzi."

The leading lessons of Pestalozzi were:

1. That the use of words by children, which they do not clearly understand, leads to intellectual confusion.

2. That book-learning is not of the highest importance. Speaking of his work at Stanz, he said: "Out of every ten children there was hardly one who knew his A. B. C. This complete ignorance was what troubled me least, for I trusted in the natural powers that God bestows on even the poorest and most neglected children."

What a revolution would be effected in school aims and processes if all teachers knew that knowledge may have little to do in deciding a man's influence or his destiny! How quickly examinations would be given up as a basis for promotion in school!

3. That clear conceptions must be obtained in childhood by

handling real things. He says: "O God! teach me to understand Thy holy natural laws, by which Thou preparest us slowly, by means of an innumerable variety of impressions for conceiving exact and complete ideas, of which words are the signs." "Teach him absolutely nothing by words that you can teach him by the things themselves." These principles led him to develop his system of objective teaching, known in England and America. as "object lessons." His aim in using objects was entirely misunderstood, however, by the teachers in England and America. They saw in his system but a means of getting knowledge quickly and accurately, because they were blinded by the false theory that "knowledge is power." Pestalozzi thought of the child and its growth, not merely of the knowledge to be given to it. He used objects to train observation definitely and develop power to think accurately in accordance with the processes of nature. English and American teachers degraded object lessons into mere information lessons. Little wonder that the English Education Department removed "Object Lessons" from the Code in 1861. However, since Froebel's use of objects in the kindergarten has revealed the true educational value of working with real things in early childhood, "Object Lessons" have again been introduced into England, and they now form a very important part of the programme of English infant schools. The revelation of the truth in regard to the growth of the child itself has come slowly. Even yet many teachers are not free from false ideals in regard to the relative values of knowledge and soul-growth.

4. That manual and industrial training is a most important educational agency, not only in the narrow sense of providing a means of earning a livelihood, or qualifying an individual for any industrial pursuit, but in both its direct and indirect influence on the mental and moral character. It is true that Pestalozzi began his industrial education as a philanthropist rather than as an educator, but his work gave a great impetus to manual training.

5. That education is an organic process. No true education can be given from without. Education cannot be forced on the individual. It must be a natural process in harmony with the fundamental laws by which all natural forces become greater forces and rise to higher forms or degrees of life. The awakening of sense impressions, the formation of perceptions, the defining of conceptions, the training of comparison and judgment should be associated directly with some life purpose of the child. True education is not a storing but a growth, not a growth by external

addition, but a growth by the evolution of the elements of mental and spiritual power. In Pestalozzi's own words, "Education consists in a continual benevolent superintendence, with the object of calling forth all the faculties which Providence has implanted." 6. That the child should be developed as a unity. He regarded it as the teacher's duty to train the physical and moral powers of the child, quite as much as to develop and store its mind. The child as a unity, physically, mentally, and morally, was the power to which he proposed to give greater power.

"First of all," he writes, "I had to arouse in the children pure, moral, and noble feelings; I had in short to follow the principles of Jesus Christ, Cleanse first that which is within.'" Again he says, "Why have I insisted so strongly on attention to early physical and intellectual education? Because I consider these as merely leading to a higher aim, to qualify the human being for the free and full use of all the faculties implanted by the Creator, and to direct all these faculties toward the perfection of the whole being of man, that he may be enabled to act in his peculiar station as an instrument of that All-wise and Almighty Power that has called him into life."

7. That character, personal force, is the greatest thing a school can develop in a child. Training is a grander word. than teaching. Pestalozzi asked, not How much knowledge can I give this child? but, What is his destiny as a created and responsible being? What are his faculties as a rational and moral being? What are the means for their perfection, and the end held out as the highest object of their efforts by the Almighty Father of all, both in creation and in the page of revelation? Raumer, who was one of his associates, estimates Pestalozzi's educational influence as follows: "He compelled the scholastic world to revise the whole of their task, to reflect on the nature and destiny of man, and also on the proper way of leading him from his youth toward that destiny."

8. That home and mother should be the greatest factors in education. "The mother is qualified by the Creator Himself to become the principal agent in the development of her child." "Maternal love is the first agent in education. Through it the child is led to trust his Creator and Redeemer." "What is demanded of the mother is-a thinking love."

He recognized the influence of all early impressions, both intellectual and spiritual. The child's intellectual impressions he would make clear as the basis of definite intellectual growth; its spiritual impressions he would have pure as the foundation elements in true moral development. He knew that the mother

should be God's best representative to the child; that from her love it must receive its first conceptions of what love really is; and that she gives it its elementary ideas of God, not by what she teaches it, but by what she is. Education should be a cooperative process in which the home and school are in harmony. There is great room yet for improvement in the ideals and processes of both home and school, but reformation is needed most in the home. Women need to study child nature to understand the processes of child growth, and to learn how to train children wisely, more than any other lessons. His opinion was that, "If education is to have any real value, it must agitate the methods which make the merit of domestic education."

9. But his best lesson after all was the revelation of the power of unselfish human love, both in teaching and disciplining, as an agency in stimulating greater effort, in arousing dormant powers, in giving a consciousness of special talent, and in securing sympathetic co-operation, which is the most essential and most productive element in the character of an individual in the schoolroom, and in the broader field of human life.

Frederick Froebel was a student with Pestalozzi, and probably received some of his elementary ideas regarding childhood from him. But Froebel's work is much more thorough, and has already influenced educational systems and methods more than Pestalozzi's, because his system is more broadly philosophical, more in harmony with the nature of the child, more definite, and more perfectly arranged in logical sequence and inter-related occupations and processes.

It is not the purpose of this article to explain the Kindergarten system, but merely to outline the distinctions between the aims of the two great apostles of childhood.

Pestalozzi was instinctive and inspirational, Froebel was philosophical and investigative.

Pestalozzi often applied correct principles without being conscious of their underlying philosophy or their adaptation to the nature of the child. Froebel studied the child for thirty years-in its mother's arms, on the playground, and as it exhibited its love of the beautiful and the wonderful in nature. He also traced the development of the race, and compared it with the progressive unfolding of the powers of the child as it grew to manhood. Having exhaustively studied the child and history, he used the results of investigation and experience as a basis for his educational system. His foundation ideal was to bring the conscious educational processes of the schools into perfect harmony with