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called Pennine, in that of the hills called Pentland, in BenNevis, and Ben-Lomond. Dun, a hill-fortress, is found in London, Dumbarton, Dundee, etc. Scores, even hundreds, of other Celtic words can be found on almost any map of England; and, indeed, as Taylor claims, on the maps of Spain, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. Besides these geographical terms it is said that the common words

Clout, crock, cradle, cart, down, pillow, barrow, glen, havoc, kiln, mattock, and pool

came into the Anglo-Saxon before the Norman Conquest. As other Celtic words appeared later, we will call all these, whether geographical or other, entering the Anglo-Saxon and continued into English, the Celtic, or Keltic, of the First Period.

But in the Celtic vocabulary foreign words had found a lodgment. The Romans held most of the island for hundreds of years. Many of their words filtered down into the speech of the subject Celts. Some of these, seven it is said, all geographical but two, forced their way up into the language of the Anglo-Saxon conquerors. Castra, a camp, appears in the names of towns ending in chester, caster, and cester; as, Manchester, Lancaster, and Leicester; strata, paved streets, in Stratford, Streatham, etc.; colonia, a settlement, in Lincoln and Colne; fossa, a trench, in Fossway and Fosbridge; portus, a harbor, in Portsmouth and Bridport; vallum, a rampart, in wall; and mile. These seven now in English we call Latin of the First Period.

But, as we have said, the heathen Anglo-Saxons were Christianized. Hosts of Roman words, some of which were derived from the Greek, the language of the New Testament and of the early Christians, came in with, or fol

lowed in the wake of, the Christian Church, whose services were conducted in Latin. Presbyter, originally an elder, apostolus, one sent, clericus, one ordained, and episcopus, an overseer, taking the forms in Anglo-Saxon of preost, postol, clerc, and biscop, and, in English, of priest, apostle, clerk, and bishop; and such words as cheese, pound, candle, table, and marble illustrate these acquisitions.

Sometimes after naturalization these words combined with the Anglo-Saxon, as in sealm-bōc, our psalm-book. Sometimes they took Anglo-Saxon endings. Monachus becoming munuc, monk, added had and formed an abstract. To this same munuc, lic, our like, was annexed, and an adjective was created; lice, and a new adverb appeared. The Latin missa (est), changed to Anglo-Saxon masse, mass, took the infinitive ending, and became mæssian, to say mass; and prædicare turned into predician, our preach.

Of the Latin words brought into Anglo-Saxon by the Church, or following in its wake, there were before the Norman Conquest at least six hundred, it is thought; if compounds are counted, three or four times as many. These are styled the Latin of the Second Period.

The Danish Conquest introduced Scandinavian terms. Taylor says that in the east of England, most of them in the Danelagh, there are six hundred places whose names end in by, Scandinavian for town. This, seen in Rugby, Grimsby, in one hundred names in Lincolnshire alone, is in our by-law and in by-the-bye. Thorp, or torp, German dorf, a village, is found in Althorpe and Wilstrop; thwaite, a clearing, in Finsthwaite and Braithwaite; ness, a nose or cape, in Sheerness and Caithness; wic, a creek or bay, in Wickham, Norwich, and in viking; toft, a home

stead, in Lowestoft and Totness; and garth, a yard, in Applegarth and Fishguard. All these and beck, a brook; force, a waterfall; dale, German thal, a valley; and holm, an island, existing as separate words or in composition, and entering before the Norman Conquest, we call Scandinavian of the First Period.

• VIII. Anglo-Saxon Literature. The prose consists chiefly of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Alfred's rendering of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the Angles and Saxons and of Boethius's De Consolatione Philosophiæ, Homilies, and Translations of the Gospels, and the Laws of Æthelbirht and Alfred; the poetry is found mainly in Beowulf (the Anglo-Saxon Iliad), such fragments as the Traveller's Song and the Fight at Finnsburg, Cadmon's Bible Epics, Cynewulf's Christ and Elene, the Harrowing of Hell, some psalms and hymns and secular lyrics.

The poetry is rhythmical. Each line is broken into two sections; each section, March thinks, with four rhythm accents. It is characterized by alliteration, the perfect line having three alliterating syllables-two in the first section and one in the second.

Anglo-Saxon poetry, hardly thirty thousand lines in all, has been preserved in part in two manuscripts the Exeter Book and the Vercelli Book-the latter found in 1832, in Italy.

Considered as literature, Anglo-Saxon prose and poetry are interesting chiefly to the student, and have had little influence on English writers; looked at lexically and grammatically, they are invaluable.

The glorious period of the Anglo-Saxons was Alfred's reign, 871-901; their decline in art and in arms begins soon after. "The specific causes of their decay we are unable to

assign," says George P. Marsh, "but it is evident that . . the people and their literature were in a state of languishing depression which was enlivened and cheered by no symptoms of returning life and vigor." The downfall of the Saxon Commonwealth was not caused, only hastened, by the Normans.

CHAPTER II.

THE NORMAN CONQUEST AND THE NEW TONGUE.

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IX. The Norman Conquest.-The Normans, or Northmen, were originally of the Norse, or Scandinavian, branch of the Teutonic race. They were men of action, enterprising merchants, navigators, soldiers of fortune, leading the van of every battle from Norway to Byzantium." Breaking from the restraints of a power that was consolidating the Scandinavian kingdoms, they boldly ventured forth, conquered the Shetland Isles, the Orkneys, and the Hebrides, founded the kingdom of Caithness in Scotland, settled Iceland, discovered Greenland, and colonized Vinland, supposed to be on the coast of New-England.

In 911, Rolf, or Rollo, the Ganger, with his band of vikings, got a footing in the fertile valley of the Seine. This province of Normandy he received as a fief from Charles the Simple, became his vassal with the title of duke, and married his daughter. The Normans were brought under French law and customs, became Christians, adopted the French language, married into French families, and caught the French spirit.

In 1066, the childless Edward the Confessor died, and Harold, his brother-in-law, succeeded him. But William, seventh Duke of Normandy, whose aunt, Emma, had been married to Ethelred II. of England, claimed the throne by hereditary right and by the promise of both Edward and

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