of valor is discretion; in the which better part I have saved my life. -I. Hen. IV. V. 4, 125.

Which was sometimes followed by that.

A daughter which that was called Sophie.—Chaucer.

But oftener than otherwise, which has long been, and still is, used without the before it, without that following it, and without the antecedent, repeated precisely or in substance, after it.

3. Who, What, That, and Which Distinguished.— At first, who, which, and that related (1) to words denoting mere animals and things, and (2) to words denoting persons. But later, which dislodged who from the first position, and who and that drove which from the second. This displacement began in the seventeenth century, and is now complete. That performs both offices, though it cannot do either after a preposition we cannot say, There is the boy or the book for that I am looking. The objective whom has followed the example of who; and whose, as the possessive of who, also refers to persons.

What (hwat) is the neuter of who (hwa), and is used only when things are spoken of. When used in the nominative and in the objective, it is now never preceded by an antecedent, and seldom has one following it. We can say, What man dares that I dare; but we should usually say, What man dares I dare. Of whose, the possessive of what, and meaning of which, Professor Meiklejohn concedes but half the truth in saying that it "may be used"; and Mason is wholly wrong in claiming that it is "rarely employed except in poetry." In our special study of authors (all prose), to which reference has been made, we have found it hundreds of times-frequently twenty-five or thirty times in three hundred pages.

The relative that is nearly always restrictive; that is, it introduces some characteristic needed to make the thing definite, which, while adding to the meaning, narrows the scope of the antecedent.

All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it.- Webster. In 1685, Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes.-Green, J. R.

Who and which are often unrestrictive, but not always So. In this office they introduce a circumstance additional, not needed to define the thing, and not limiting the antecedent, and have the meaning of and he, and she, and it, or and they.

Manslaughter, which is the meaning of the one, is the same as man's laughter, which is the end of the other.-Holmes. Charles II., who never said a foolish thing, gave the English climate the highest praise. -Lowell.

But who and which introduce restrictive clauses as well, and so share with that the function just assigned it.

Writers who have no present are pretty sure of having no future.— Lowell. An artist is bound to give due weight to the motives which would claim authority over him in other acts of life.-Hutton.

This wide use of who and which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after this, these, those, and even that, and hence are used to avoid the disagreeable repetition of sound which that after these words would cause. This may frequently be the reason for the employment of who and which in restrictive clauses; but our collected instances enable us to affirm (1) that who and which stand in such clauses oftener without than with those pronouns preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than that itself. Especially is this true of which.

4

Instead of which in relative clauses, when and where and wherein and whereby and whereof and whereto and whereon are used. We add that who, which, and that are very often omitted when, if used, they would stand in the objective. Particularly is this true of which and that.

The work we have accomplished is the proper commentary of the methods we have pursued.-Tyndall. There's not a joy the world can give like that it takes away.-Byron.

Macaulay is the only writer we have found who uniformly inserts the relative.

Again, we may say that, unlike that, the pronoun which may relate to a whole clause. This office of which has been scouted by those critics who try to impose a grammar upon authors rather than take their own from authors. But scores and scores of illustrations can be given.

The sails turned, the corn was ground, after which the wind ceased. Tyndall. Unless Spenser's publisher . . . is not to be trusted, which of course is possible.-Church. If he had not kissed the keeper's daughter, which is far from improbable.-Dowden. He [the Saxon] is wanting in taste, which is as much as to say that he has no sense of proportion.-Lowell. And, which became him like a prince indeed, he made a blushing 'cital of himself.-Shakespeare. The particulars of the controversy have not reached us, which is ever to be lamented.Irving.

Lastly, which may relate to the gist of a clause or the assertive part of it.

The person takes in hand the regulation of his own morality, which it is hardly safe for any one to do.-Hamerton. He ought to come to church, which he never does.-Kingsley. They are wasting time, to do which elegantly . . . is the highest achievement of civilization. -Lowell.

...

XXIII. Some of the Adjective Pronouns. We select a few,

only those concerning the proper use of which there is still a question.

1. Some. Some (Anglo-Saxon sum) at first meant a certain. This meaning it still has in somebody and something. But it came early in English to denote a vague number or quantity-some people, some water, some are aged.

Some in the sense of about may precede numerals. Shakespeare abounds in this use of it; it may be found twice in a single Scene, the second, of Act II., of Julius Cæsar. It is perfectly good Anglo-Saxon as well. Upon this use of some, the critics described above have served an injunction; but usage disregards the injunction.

And vile it were for some three suns to store and hoard myself.— Tennyson. Enduring some ninety years.— Milne. Some four persons in the length and breadth of London.-Newman. Thus came the jocund spring in Killingworth, in fabulous days some hundred years ago.-Longfellow. A baby of some three months.-Hawthorne. Of books but few—some fifty score for daily use.-Holmes.

We could give, from the best authors of the day, numberless examples of this use of some.

2. Both and All.—Ordinarily, these are adjectives, and belong to some noun or pronoun. But, in spite of the interdict of the critics, they may be followed by of and an objective.

Both of us are wooing gales of festal happiness.—De Quincey. All of the dialects of our branch.—Whitney. Both of them were notorious for their loyalty; both of them were of unspotted virtue; both of them have left a reputation.-Buckle. Both of the girls have plenty of . . . humor.-Thackeray. They were both of them fertile and active thinkers.-J. S. Mill. We are all of us imaginative.-George Eliot.

Such sentences abound.

3. One.-One (Anglo-Saxon an) is (1) a numeral adjective-One God, one law, one element; (2) a definite adjective-One evening after the sheep were folded; is used (3) instead of a substantive-Our contract is an old one, The Holy one; and (4) as an indefinite adjective pronoun. It is of one with this function-that of on in French, of man in German and in Anglo-Saxon, that of body in, If a body meet a body, it is of this one that we shall first speak. These sentences illustrate this use of it.

One cannot always be studying one's own work.—Matthew Arnold. It does not consist in buying what one needs for one's own comfort or pleasure.-R. G. White. Much as one is dazzled by Choate's marvelous command of diction, still one cannot avoid thinking of his style in the reading.—Phelps. One can be happy with many little désagréments when one sees that the people are determined to be civil to one. -Thackeray.

Where, as in this last quotation, the iteration of one may offend, a personal pronoun may be used instead. This substitution is proscribed by the critics described above, but usage allows it.

It is a good sign to have one's feet grow cold when he is writing. -Holmes. One feels as if he could eat grass himself.—Burroughs. The higher one is elevated on the see-saw balance of fortune, the lower must be his subsequent depression.-Irving. One is arrived, one is at his ancient lodging of the Hotel Bristol.-Thackeray.

As seen above, one may take the apostrophe in the possessive.

It is one in the third use described above, its use as a substantive, that takes the plural ones. This plural is exceedingly common, though condemned by many who are ignorant of what usage approves or regardless of it.

These early years we know were busy ones.-Church.

The female